Production of fatty olefin derivatives via olefin metathesis

ABSTRACT

In one aspect, the invention provides a method for synthesizing a fatty olefin derivative. The method includes: a) contacting an olefin according to Formula I 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     with a metathesis reaction partner according to Formula IIb 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     in the presence of a metathesis catalyst under conditions sufficient to form a metathesis product according to Formula IIIb: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     and b) converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative. Each R 1  is independently selected from H, C 1-18  alkyl, and C 2-18  alkenyl; R 2b  is C 1-8  alkyl; subscript y is an integer ranging from 0 to 17; and subscript z is an integer ranging from 0 to 17. In certain embodiments, the metathesis catalyst is a tungsten catalyst or a molybdenum catalyst. In various embodiments, the fatty olefin derivative is a pheromone. Pheromone compositions and methods of using them are also described.

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/354,916, filed on Nov. 17, 2016 and issued as U.S. Pat. No. 9,776,179 on Oct. 3, 2017, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Pat. Appl. No. 62/257,148, filed on Nov. 18, 2015, which applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Insect infestation is a primary cause of crop loss throughout the United States. A wide variety of chemical pesticides has been relied upon in the past to control insect pests. However, environmental concerns as well as consumer safety concerns have led to the de-registration of many pesticides and a reluctance to use others on agricultural products which are ultimately consumed as food. As a consequence, there is a desire for the development of alternative biological control agents.

Pheromones are chemicals which are secreted outside the body of insects can be classified according to the type of behavioral reaction they induce. Pheromone classes include aggregation pheromones, sexual pheromones, trail pheromones, and alarm pheromones. Sex pheromones, for example, are typically secreted by insects to attract partners for mating.

When pheromones are dispersed on leaves of a crop plant, or in an orchard environment in small quantities over a continuous period of time, pheromone levels reach thresholds that can modify insect behavior. Maintenance of pheromone levels at or above such thresholds can impact insect reproductive processes and reduce mating. Use of pheromones in conjunction with conventional insecticides can therefore reduce the quantity of insecticide required for effective control and can specifically target pest insects while preserving beneficial insect populations. These advantages can reduce risks to humans and the environment and lower overall insect control costs.

Despite these advantages, pheromones are not widely used today because of the high cost of active ingredient (AI). Even though thousands of insect pheromones have been identified, less than about twenty insect pests worldwide are currently controlled using pheromone strategies, and only 0.05% of global agricultural land employs pheromones. Lepidopteran pheromones, which are naturally occurring compounds, or identical or substantially similar synthetic compounds, are designated by an unbranched aliphatic chain (between 9 and 18 carbons) ending in an alcohol, aldehyde, or acetate functional group and containing up to 3 double bonds in the aliphatic backbone. Improved methods for preparing lepidopteran insect pheromones and structurally related compounds are needed. The present invention meets this and other needs.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In a first aspect, the invention provides a method for synthesizing a fatty olefin derivative. The method includes:

a) contacting an olefin according to Formula I

with a metathesis reaction partner according to Formula II

in the presence of a metathesis catalyst under conditions sufficient to form a metathesis product; and

b) optionally converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative;

wherein:

R¹ is selected from H, C₁₋₁₈ alkyl, and C₂₋₁₈ alkenyl;

R² is selected from —(CH₂)_(x)OR^(2a) and —(CH₂)_(y)COOR^(2b), wherein R^(2a) is an alcohol protecting group and R^(2b) is C₁₋₈ alkyl;

subscript x is an integer ranging from 1 to 18;

subscript y is an integer ranging from 0 to 17; and

subscript z is an integer ranging from 0 to 17.

In some embodiments, the metathesis catalyst is a tungsten metathesis catalyst, a molybdenum metathesis catalyst, or a ruthenium metathesis catalyst. In certain embodiments, the metathesis catalyst is a tungsten catalyst or a molybdenum catalyst.

In some embodiments, the metathesis reaction partner is a protected alcohol according to Formula IIa:

wherein R^(2a) is an alcohol protecting group,

and wherein the metathesis product is a compound according to Formula IIIa:

In some embodiments, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative includes removing R^(2a) from the compound of Formula IIIa to form an alkenol according to Formula Va:

In some embodiments, the alkenol of Formula Va is the pheromone. In some embodiments, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative further includes acylating the alkenol of Formula Va, thereby forming a fatty olefin derivative according to Formula VIa:

wherein R^(2c is C) ₁₋₆ acyl.

In some embodiments, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative further includes oxidizing the alkenol of Formula Va, thereby forming a fatty olefin derivative according to Formula VIIa:

In some embodiments, the metathesis reaction partner is an ester according to Formula IIb:

and subscript z is an integer ranging from 1 to 18; and

wherein the metathesis product is a compound according to Formula IIIb:

In some embodiments, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative includes reducing the metathesis product of Formula IIIb to form an alkenol according to Formula Vb:

In some embodiments, the metathesis reaction partner is a protected alcohol according to Formula IIa or Formula IIb and the metathesis product is a compound according to Formula IV:

In some embodiments, R¹ in the compound of Formula IV is C₂₋₁₈ alkenyl.

A number of pheromones and pheromone precursors, including unsaturated fatty alcohols, unsaturated fatty alcohol acetates, unsaturated fatty aldehydes, unsaturated fatty acid esters, and polyenes, can be synthesized using the methods of the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION I. INTRODUCTION

The present invention provides methods for the synthesis of fatty olefin derivatives (such as straight-chain lepidopteran pheromones; SCLPs) through the cross-metathesis of protected fatty alcohols or fatty acid esters with olefins (e.g., α-olefins). Through the use of a variety of fatty alcohols, fatty acid alkyl esters and α-olefin feedstocks in concert with olefin metathesis catalysts (including Group VI Z-selective catalysts), a wide variety of protected unsaturated fatty alcohol precursors with high Z-olefin content can be obtained. These precursor compounds can be converted to pheromones (e.g., long chain Z-alcohols, Z-aldehydes, Z-acetates, and Z-nitrates) and other useful fatty olefin derivatives as described in detail below. Alternatively, non-selective olefin metathesis catalysts (including Group VI non-selective catalysts) can be used to generate cis/trans mixtures of protected long chain fatty alcohols. Such mixtures can be refined to provide pure E-pheromone precursors and other fatty E-olefin derivatives via Z-selective ethenolysis. The methods provide access to valuable products, including SCLPs containing 7-, 9-, or 10-monounsaturation.

II. DEFINITIONS

The following definitions and abbreviations are to be used for the interpretation of the invention. The term “invention” or “present invention” as used herein is a non-limiting term and is not intended to refer to any single embodiment but encompasses all possible embodiments.

As used herein, the terms “comprises,” “comprising,” “includes,” “including,” “has,” “having, “contains,” “containing,” or any other variation thereof, are intended to cover a non-exclusive inclusion. A composition, mixture, process, method, article, or apparatus that comprises a list of elements is not necessarily limited to only those elements but may include other elements not expressly listed or inherent to such composition, mixture, process, method, article, or apparatus. Further, unless expressly stated to the contrary, “or” refers to an inclusive “or” and not to an exclusive “or.”

The terms “about” and “around,” as used herein to modify a numerical value, indicate a close range surrounding that explicit value. If “X” were the value, “about X” or “around X” would indicate a value from 0.9X to 1.1X, and in certain instances, a value from 0.95X to 1.05X or from 0.98X to 1.02X. Any reference to “about X” or “around X” specifically indicates at least the values X, 0.95X, 0.96X, 0.97X, 0.98X, 0.99X, 1.01X, 1.02X, 1.03X, 1.04X, and 1.05X. Thus, “about X” and “around X” are intended to teach and provide written description support for a claim limitation of, e.g., “0.99X.”

As used herein, the term “pheromone” refers to a substance, or characteristic mixture of substances, that is secreted and released by an organism and detected by a second organism of the same species or a closely related species. Typically, detection of the pheromone by the second organism promotes a specific reaction, such as a definite behavioral reaction or a developmental process. Insect pheromones, for example, can influence behaviors such as mating and aggregation. Examples of pheromones include, but are not limited to, compounds produced by Lepidoptera (i.e., moths and butterflies belonging to the Geometridae, Noctuidae, Arctiidae, and Lymantriidae families) such as C₁₀-C₁₈ acetates, C₁₀-C₁₈ alcohols, C₁₀-C₁₈ aldehydes, and C₁₇-C₂₃ polyenes. An “unsaturated pheromone” refers to any pheromone having at least one carbon-carbon double bond.

As used herein, the term “contacting” refers to the process of bringing into contact at least two distinct species such that they can react. It should be appreciated, however, that the resulting reaction product can be produced directly from a reaction between the added reagents or from an intermediate from one or more of the added reagents that can be produced in the reaction mixture.

As used herein, the term “olefin” refers to a straight-chain or branched hydrocarbon compound containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond and derivatives thereof. The olefin can be unsubstituted or substituted with one or more functional groups including alcohol groups, protected alcohol groups, carboxylate groups, and carboxylic acid ester groups. As used herein, the term “olefin” encompasses hydrocarbons having more than one carbon-carbon double bond (e.g., di-olefins, tri-olefins, etc.). Hydrocarbons having more than one carbon-carbon double bond and derivatives thereof are also referred to as “polyenes.” The term “fatty olefin” refers to an olefin having at least four carbon atoms; fatty olefins can have, for example, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, or 28 carbon atoms. A “fatty olefin derivative” refers to a compound obtained from an olefin starting material or a fatty olefin starting material. Examples of fatty olefin derivatives include, but are not limited to, unsaturated fatty alcohols, unsaturated fatty alcohol acetates, unsaturated fatty aldehydes, unsaturated fatty acids, unsaturated fatty acid esters, and polyenes. In certain embodiments, fatty olefins derivatives synthesized according to the methods of the invention have from 8 to 28 carbon atoms.

A Δ⁹-unsaturated olefin refers to an olefin wherein the ninth bond from the end of olefin is a double bond. A Δ⁹-unsaturated fatty acid refers to an olefinic carboxylic acid wherein the ninth bond from the carboxylic acid group is a double bond. Examples of Δ⁹-unsaturated fatty acids include, but are not limited to, 9-decenoic acid, oleic acid (i.e., (Z)-octadec-9-enoic acid), and elaidic acid (i.e., (E)-octadec-9-enoic acid).

As used herein, the term “metathesis reaction” refers to a catalytic reaction which involves the interchange of alkylidene units (i.e., R₂C=units) among compounds containing one or more carbon-carbon double bonds (e.g., olefinic compounds) via the formation and cleavage of the carbon-carbon double bonds. Metathesis can occur between two molecules having the same structure (often referred to as self-metathesis) and/or between two molecules having different structures (often referred to as cross-metathesis). The term “metathesis reaction partner” refers to a compound having a carbon-carbon double bond that can react with an olefin in a metathesis reaction to form a new carbon-carbon double bond.

As used herein, the term “metathesis catalyst” refers to any catalyst or catalyst system that catalyzes a metathesis reaction. One of skill in the art will appreciate that a metathesis catalyst can participate in a metathesis reaction so as to increase the rate of the reaction, but is itself not consumed in the reaction. A “tungsten catalyst” refers to a metathesis catalyst having one or more tungsten atoms. A “molybdenum catalyst” refers to a metathesis catalyst having one or more molybdenum atoms.

As used herein, the term “metathesis product” refers to an olefin containing at least one double bond, the bond being formed via a metathesis reaction.

As used herein, the term “converting” refers to reacting a starting material with at least one reagent to form an intermediate species or a product. The converting can also include reacting an intermediate with at least one reagent to form a further intermediate species or a product.

As used herein, the term “oxidizing” refers to the transfer of electron density from a substrate compound to an oxidizing agent. The electron density transfer typically occurs via a process including addition of oxygen to the substrate compound or removal of hydrogen from the substrate compound. The term “oxidizing agent” refers to a reagent which can accept electron density from the substrate compound. Examples of oxidizing agents include, but are not limited to, pyridinium chlorochromate, o-iodoxybenzoic acid, and 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine 1-oxyl.

As used herein, the term “reducing” refers to the transfer of electron density from a reducing agent to a substrate compound. The electron density transfer typically occurs via a process including addition of hydrogen to the substrate compound. The term “reducing agent” refers to a reagent which can donate electron density to the substrate compound. Examples of reducing agents include, but are not limited to, sodium borohydride and sodium triacetoxyborohydride.

As used herein, the term “acylating” refers to converting a alcohol group (—OH), to an ester group (—OC(O)R), where R is an alkyl group as described below.

The term “aliphatic” or “aliphatic group,” as used herein, means a straight-chain (i.e., unbranched) or branched, substituted or unsubstituted hydrocarbon chain that is completely saturated or that contains one or more units of unsaturation, or a monocyclic hydrocarbon, bicyclic hydrocarbon, or tricyclic hydrocarbon that is completely saturated or that contains one or more units of unsaturation, but which is not aromatic (also referred to herein as “carbocycle” or “cycloaliphatic”), that has a single point of attachment to the rest of the molecule. Unless otherwise specified, aliphatic groups contain 1-30 aliphatic carbon atoms. In some embodiments, aliphatic groups contain 1-20 aliphatic carbon atoms. In other embodiments, aliphatic groups contain 1-10 aliphatic carbon atoms. In still other embodiments, aliphatic groups contain 1-5 aliphatic carbon atoms, and in yet other embodiments, aliphatic groups contain 1, 2, 3, or 4 aliphatic carbon atoms. In some embodiments, “cycloaliphatic” (or “carbocycle”) refers to a monocyclic C₃-C₆ hydrocarbon, or a C₈-C₁₀ bicyclic hydrocarbon that is completely saturated or that contains one or more units of unsaturation, but which is not aromatic, that has a single point of attachment to the rest of the molecule. Suitable aliphatic groups include, but are not limited to, linear or branched, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl groups and hybrids thereof such as (cycloalkyl)alkyl, (cycloalkenyl)alkyl, or (cycloalkyl)alkenyl. The term “heteroaliphiatic” refers to an aliphatic group wherein at least one carbon atom of the aliphatic group is replaced with a heteroatom (i.e., nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur, including any oxidized form of nitrogen or sulfur, and any quaternized form of a basic nitrogen).

As used herein, the term “alkyl” is given its ordinary meaning in the art and includes straight-chain alkyl groups and branched-chain alkyl groups having the number of carbons indicated. In certain embodiments, a straight chain or branched chain alkyl has about 1-30 carbon atoms in its backbone (e.g., C₁-C₃₀ for straight chain, C₃-C₃₀ for branched chain), and alternatively, about 1-20. In some embodiments, an alkyl group may be a lower alkyl group, wherein a lower alkyl group comprises 1-4 carbon atoms (e.g., C₁-C₄ for straight chain lower alkyls).

The term “heteroalkyl” is given its ordinary meaning in the art and refers to alkyl groups as described herein in which one or more carbon atoms is replaced with a heteroatom (e.g., oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and the like). Examples of heteroalkyl groups include, but are not limited to, alkoxy, poly(ethylene glycol)-, alkyl-substituted amino, and the like.

As used herein, the term “acyl” refers to the functional group —C(O)R), wherein R is an alkyl group as described above.

As used herein, the term “alkoxy” refers to a moiety —OR wherein R is an alkyl group as defined above. The term “silylalkyl” refers to an alkyl group as defined herein wherein as least one carbon atom is replaced with a silicon atom. The term “silyloxy” refers to a moiety —OSiR₃, wherein each R is independently selected from the group consisting of H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, and substituted aryl as described herein.

As used herein, the term “cycloalkyl” refers to a saturated, monocyclic hydrocarbon, bicyclic hydrocarbon, or tricyclic hydrocarbon group that has a single point of attachment to the rest of the molecule. Cycloalkyl groups include alkyl substituted cycloalkyl groups and cycloalkyl substituted alkyl groups. In some embodiments, cycloalkyl rings have from about 3-10 carbon atoms in their ring structure where such rings are monocyclic or bicyclic, and alternatively about 5, 6 or 7 carbons in the ring structure.

As used herein, the term “alkenyl” refers to an alkyl group, as defined herein, having one or more double bonds. The term “heteroalkenyl” refers to an alkenyl group wherein one or more carbon atoms is replaced with a heteroatom (i.e., nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur, including any oxidized form of nitrogen or sulfur, and any quaternized form of a basic nitrogen).

As used herein, the term “alkenol” refers to a compound having a formula R—OR′ wherein R is an alkenyl group and R′ is hydrogen or an alcohol protecting group.

As used herein, the term “alkynyl” refers to an alkyl group, as defined herein, having one or more triple bonds.

The term “aryl” used alone or as part of a larger moiety as in “aralkyl,” “aralkoxy,” or “aryloxyalkyl,” refers to monocyclic or bicyclic ring systems having a total of five to fourteen ring members, wherein at least one ring in the system is aromatic and wherein each ring in the system contains 3 to 7 ring members. The term “aryl” may be used interchangeably with the term “aryl ring.” In certain embodiments of the present invention, “aryl” refers to an aromatic ring system which includes, but is not limited to, phenyl, biphenyl, naphthyl, anthracyl and the like, which may bear one or more substituents. Also included within the scope of the term “aryl,” as it is used herein, is a group in which an aromatic ring is fused to one or more non-aromatic rings, such as indanyl, phthalimidyl, naphthimidyl, phenanthridinyl, or tetrahydronaphthyl, and the like. The term “aryloxy” refers to a moiety —OR, wherein R is an aryl group as defined above.

The terms “heteroaryl” and “heteroar-,” used alone or as part of a larger moiety, e.g., “heteroaralkyl,” or “heteroaralkoxy,” refer to groups having 5 to 10 ring atoms (i.e., monocyclic or bicyclic), in some embodiments 5, 6, 9, or 10 ring atoms. In some embodiments, such rings have 6, 10, or 14 pi electrons shared in a cyclic arrangement; and having, in addition to carbon atoms, from one to five heteroatoms. The term “heteroatom” refers to nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur, and includes any oxidized form of nitrogen or sulfur, and any quaternized form of a basic nitrogen. Heteroaryl groups include, without limitation, thienyl, furanyl, pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, triazolyl, tetrazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, oxadiazolyl, thiazolyl, isothiazolyl, thiadiazolyl, pyridyl, pyridazinyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrazinyl, indolizinyl, purinyl, naphthyridinyl, and pteridinyl. The terms “heteroaryl” and “heteroar-,” as used herein, also include groups in which a heteroaromatic ring is fused to one or more aryl, cycloaliphatic, or heterocyclyl rings, where the radical or point of attachment is on the heteroaromatic ring. Nonlimiting examples include indolyl, isoindolyl, benzothienyl, benzofuranyl, dibenzofuranyl, indazolyl, benzimidazolyl, benzthiazolyl, quinolyl, isoquinolyl, cinnolinyl, phthalazinyl, quinazolinyl, quinoxalinyl, 4H-quinolizinyl, carbazolyl, acridinyl, phenazinyl, phenothiazinyl, phenoxazinyl, tetrahydroquinolinyl, tetrahydroisoquinolinyl, and pyrido[2,3-b]-1,4-oxazin-3(4H)-one. A heteroaryl group may be mono- or bicyclic. The term “heteroaryl” may be used interchangeably with the terms “heteroaryl ring,” “heteroaryl group,” or “heteroaromatic,” any of which terms include rings that are optionally substituted. The term “heteroaralkyl” refers to an alkyl group substituted by a heteroaryl, wherein the alkyl and heteroaryl portions independently are optionally substituted.

Examples of aryl and heteroaryl groups include, but are not limited to, phenyl, pyrrolyl, furanyl, thiophenyl, imidazolyl, oxazolyl, thiazolyl, triazolyl, pyrazolyl, pyridinyl, pyrazinyl, pyridazinyl and pyrimidinyl, and the like. It should be understood that, when aryl and heteroaryl groups are used as ligands coordinating a metal center, the aryl and heteroaryl groups may have sufficient ionic character to coordinate the metal center. For example, when a heteroaryl group such as pyrrole is used as a nitrogen-containing ligand, as described herein, it should be understood that the pyrrole group has sufficient ionic character (e.g., is sufficiently deprotonated to define a pyrrolyl) to coordinate the metal center. In some cases, the aryl or heteroaryl group may comprise at least one functional group that has sufficient ionic character to coordinate the metal center, such as a biphenolate group, for example.

As used herein, the terms “heterocycle,” “heterocyclyl,” “heterocyclic radical,” and “heterocyclic ring” are used interchangeably and refer to a stable 5- to 7-membered monocyclic or 7-10-membered bicyclic heterocyclic moiety that is either saturated or partially unsaturated, and having, in addition to carbon atoms, one or more heteroatoms (e.g., one to four heteroatoms), as defined above. When used in reference to a ring atom of a heterocycle, the term “nitrogen” includes a substituted nitrogen. As an example, in a saturated or partially unsaturated ring having 1-3 heteroatoms selected from oxygen, sulfur or nitrogen, the nitrogen may be N (as in 3,4-dihydro-2H-pyrrolyl), NH (as in pyrrolidinyl), or ⁺NR (as in N-substituted pyrrolidinyl).

A heterocyclic ring can be attached to its pendant group at any heteroatom or carbon atom that results in a stable structure and any of the ring atoms can be optionally substituted. Examples of such saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic radicals include, without limitation, tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothiophenyl, pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl, pyrrolinyl, tetrahydroquinolinyl, tetrahydroisoquinolinyl, decahydroquinolinyl, oxazolidinyl, piperazinyl, dioxanyl, dioxolanyl, diazepinyl, oxazepinyl, thiazepinyl, morpholinyl, and quinuclidinyl. The terms “heterocycle,” “heterocyclyl,” “heterocyclyl ring,” “heterocyclic group,” “heterocyclic moiety,” and “heterocyclic radical,” are used interchangeably herein, and also include groups in which a heterocyclyl-ring is fused to one or more aryl, heteroaryl, or cycloaliphatic rings, such as indolinyl, 3H-indolyl, chromanyl, phenanthridinyl, or tetrahydroquinolinyl. A heterocyclyl group may be mono- or bicyclic. The term “heterocyclylalkyl” refers to an alkyl group substituted by a heterocyclyl, wherein the alkyl and heterocyclyl portions independently are optionally substituted.

The terms “halogen” and “halo” are used interchangeably to refer to F, Cl, Br, or I.

As used herein, the term “protecting group” refers to a chemical moiety that renders a functional group unreactive, but is also removable so as to restore the functional group. Examples of “alcohol protecting groups” include, but are not limited to, benzyl; tert-butyl; trityl; tert-butyldimethylsilyl (TBDMS; TBS); 4,5-dimethoxy-2-nitrobenzyloxycarbonyl (Dmnb); propargyloxycarbonyl (Poc); and the like. Examples of “amine protecting groups” include, but are not limited to, benzyloxycarbonyl; 9-fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl (Fmoc); tert-butyloxycarbonyl (Boc); allyloxycarbonyl (Alloc); p-toluene sulfonyl (Tos); 2,2,5,7,8-pentamethylchroman-6-sulfonyl (Pmc); 2,2,4,6,7-pentamethyl-2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-sulfonyl (Pbf); mesityl-2-sulfonyl (Mts); 4-methoxy-2,3,6-trimethylphenylsulfonyl (Mtr); acetamido; phthalimido; and the like. Other alcohol protecting groups and amine protecting groups are known to those of skill in the art including, for example, those described by Green and Wuts (Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis, 4th Ed. 2007, Wiley-Interscience, New York).

As described herein, compounds of the invention may contain “optionally substituted” moieties. In general, the term “substituted,” whether preceded by the term “optionally” or not, means that one or more hydrogens of the designated moiety are replaced with a suitable substituent. Unless otherwise indicated, an “optionally substituted” group may have a suitable substituent at each substitutable position of the group, and when more than one position in any given structure may be substituted with more than one substituent selected from a specified group, the substituent may be either the same or different at every position. Combinations of substituents envisioned by this invention are generally those that result in the formation of stable or chemically feasible compounds. The term “stable,” as used herein, refers to compounds that are not substantially altered when subjected to conditions to allow for their production, detection, and, in certain embodiments, their recovery, purification, and use for one or more of the purposes disclosed herein.

Suitable monovalent substituents on a substitutable carbon atom of an “optionally substituted” group are independently halogen; —(CH₂)₀₋₄R^(α); —(CH₂)₀₋₄OR^(α), —O(CH₂)₀₋₄R^(a), —O—(CH₂)₀₋₄C(O)OR^(α), —(CH₂)₀₋₄CH(OR^(α))₂; —(CH₂)₀₋₄SR^(α); —(CH₂)₀₋₄Ph, which may be substituted with R^(α); —(CH₂)₀₋₄O(CH₂)₀₋₁Ph which may be substituted with R^(α); —CH═CHPh, which may be substituted with R^(α); —(CH₂)₀₋₄O(CH₂)₀₋₁-pyridyl which may be substituted with R^(α); —NO₂; —CN; —N₃; —(CH₂)₀₋₄N(R^(α))₂; —(CH₂)₀₋₄N(R^(α))C(O)R^(α); —N(R°)C(S)R^(α); —(CH₂)₀₋₄N(R^(α))C(O)NR^(α) ₂; —N(R^(α))C(S)NR^(α) ₂; —(CH₂)₀₋₄N(R^(α))C(O)OR^(α); —N(R^(α))N(R^(α))C(O)R^(α); —N(R^(α))N(R^(α))C(O)NR^(α) ₂; —N(R^(α))N(R^(α))C(O)OR^(α); —(CH₂)₀₋₄C(O)R^(α); —C(S)R^(α); —(CH₂)₀₋₄C(O)OR^(α); —(CH₂)₀₋₄C(O)SR^(α); —(CH₂)₀₋₄C(O)OSiR^(α) ₃; —(CH₂)₀₋₄OC(O)R^(α); —OC(O)(CH₂)₀₋₄SR—SC(S)SR^(α); —(CH₂)₀₋₄SC(O)R^(α); —(CH₂)₀₋₄C(O)NR^(α) ₂; —C(S)NR^(α) ₂, —C(S)SR^(α); —SC(S)SR^(α), —(CH₂)₀₋₄OC(O)NR^(α) ₂; —C(O)N(OR^(α))R^(α); —C(O)C(O)R^(α); —C(O)CH₂C(O)R^(α); —C(NOR^(α))R^(α); —(CH₂)₀₋₄SSR^(α); —(CH₂)₀₋₄S(O)₂R^(α); —(CH₂)₀₋₄S(O)₂OR^(α); —(CH₂)₀₋₄OS(O)₂R^(α); —S(O)₂NR^(α) ₂; —(CH₂)₀₋₄S(O)R^(α); —N(R^(α))S(O)₂NR^(α) ₂; —N(R^(α))S(O)₂R^(α); —N(OR^(α))R^(α); —C(NH)NR^(α) ₂; —P(O)₂R^(α); —P(O)R^(α) ₂; —OP(O)R^(α) ₂; —OP(O)(OR^(α))₂; SiR^(α) ₃; —(C₁₋₄ straight or branched)alkylene)O—N(R^(α))₂; or —(C₁₋₄ straight or branched)alkylene)C(O)O—N(R^(α))₂, wherein each R^(α) may be substituted as defined below and is independently hydrogen, C₁₋₆ aliphatic, —CH₂Ph, —O(CH₂)₀₋₁Ph, —CH₂-(5-6 membered heteroaryl ring), or a 5-6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, or, notwithstanding the definition above, two independent occurrences of R^(α), taken together with their intervening atom(s), form a 3-12-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic mono- or bi-cyclic ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, which may be substituted as defined below.

Suitable monovalent substituents on R^(a) (or the ring formed by taking two independent occurrences of R^(α)together with their intervening atoms), are independently halogen, —(CH₂)₀₋₂R^(β); -(haloR^(β)); —(CH₂)₀₋₂OH; —(CH₂)₀₋₂OR^(β); —(CH₂)₀₋₂CH(OR^(β))₂; —O(haloR^(β)); —CN; —N₃; —(CH₂)₀₋₂C(O)R^(β); —(CH₂)₀₋₂C(O)OH; —(CH₂)₀₋₂C(O)OR^(β); —(CH₂)₀₋₂SR^(β); —(CH₂)₀₋₂SH; —(CH₂)₀₋₂NH₂; —(CH₂)₀₋₂NHR^(β); —CH₂)₀₋₂NR^(β) ₂; —NO₂; SiR^(β) ₃; —OSiR^(β) ₃; —C(O)SR^(β); —(C₁₋₄ straight or branched alkylene)C(O)OR^(β); or —SSR^(β); wherein each R⁶² is unsubstituted or where preceded by “halo” is substituted only with one or more halogens, and is independently selected from C₁₋₄ aliphatic, —CH₂Ph, —O(CH₂)₀₋₁Ph, or a 5-6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Suitable divalent substituents on a saturated carbon atom of R^(α) include ═O and ═S.

Suitable divalent substituents on a saturated carbon atom of an “optionally substituted” group include the following: ═O; ═S; ═NNR^(γ) ₂; ═NNHC(O)R^(γ); ═NNHC(O)OR^(γ); ═NNHS(O)₂R^(γ); ═NR^(γ); ═NOR^(γ); —O(C(R^(γ) ₂))₂₋₃O—; or —S(C(R^(γ) ₂))₂₋₃S—; wherein each independent occurrence of R^(γ) is selected from hydrogen, C₁₋₆ aliphatic which may be substituted as defined below, or an unsubstituted 5-6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Suitable divalent substituents that are bound to vicinal substitutable carbons of an “optionally substituted” group include: —O(CR^(β) ₂)₂₋₃O—, wherein each independent occurrence of R^(β) is selected from hydrogen, C₁₋₆ aliphatic which may be substituted as defined below, or an unsubstituted 5-6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

Suitable substituents on the aliphatic group of R^(γ) include halogen, —R⁶⁷ , -(haloR^(δ)), —OH, —O(haloR^(δ)), —CN, —C(O)OH, —C(O)OR^(δ), —NH₂, —NHR^(δ), —NR^(δ) ₂, or —NO₂, wherein each R^(δ) is unsubstituted or where preceded by “halo” is substituted only with one or more halogens, and is independently C₁₋₄ aliphatic, —CH₂Ph, —O(CH₂)₀₋₁Ph, or a 5-6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

Suitable substituents on a substitutable nitrogen of an “optionally substituted” group include —R^(ε), —NR^(ε) ₂, —C(O)R²⁴⁹, —C(O)OR^(ε), —C(O)C(O)R²⁴⁹ , —C(O)CH₂C(O)R²⁴⁹ , —S(O)₂R²⁴⁹ , —S(O)₂NR^(ε) ₂, —C(S)NR^(ε) ₂, —C(NH)NR^(ε) ₂, or —N(R^(ε)S(O)₂R²⁴⁹ ; wherein each R^(ε) is independently hydrogen, C₁₋₆ aliphatic which may be substituted as defined below, unsubstituted —OPh, or an unsubstituted 5-6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, or, notwithstanding the definition above, two independent occurrences of R^(ε), taken together with their intervening atom(s) form an unsubstituted 3-12-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic mono- or bicyclic ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

Suitable substituents on the aliphatic group of R^(ε) are independently halogen, —R^(δ), -(haloR^(δ)), —OH, —CN, —C(O)OH, —C(O)OR^(ε), —NH₂, —NHR^(δ), —NR^(δ) ₂, or —NO₂, wherein each R^(δ) is unsubstituted or where preceded by “halo” is substituted only with one or more halogens, and is independently C₁₋₄ aliphatic, —CH₂Ph, —O(CH₂)₀₋₁Ph, or a 5-6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aromatic ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, the term “substituted” is contemplated to include all permissible substituents of organic compounds, “permissible” being in the context of the chemical rules of valence known to those of ordinary skill in the art. In some cases, “substituted” may generally refer to replacement of a hydrogen atom with a substituent as described herein. However, “substituted,” as used herein, does not encompass replacement and/or alteration of a key functional group by which a molecule is identified, e.g., such that the “substituted” functional group becomes, through substitution, a different functional group. For example, a “substituted phenyl” group must still comprise the phenyl moiety and cannot be modified by substitution, in this definition, to become, e.g., a cyclohexyl group. In a broad aspect, permissible substituents include acyclic and cyclic, branched and unbranched, carbocyclic and heterocyclic, aromatic and nonaromatic substituents of organic compounds. Illustrative substituents include, for example, those described herein. Permissible substituents can be one or more and the same or different for appropriate organic compounds. For example, a substituted alkyl group may be CF₃. For purposes of this invention, the heteroatoms such as nitrogen may have hydrogen substituents and/or any permissible substituents of organic compounds described herein which satisfy the valencies of the heteroatoms. This invention is not intended to be limited in any manner by the permissible substituents of organic compounds.

Examples of substituents include, but are not limited to, alkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, cyclic alkyl, heterocycloalkyl, hydroxy, alkoxy, aryloxy, perhaloalkoxy, arylalkoxy, heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, heteroarylalkyl, heteroarylalkoxy, azido, amino, halogen, alkylthio, oxo, acylalkyl, carboxy esters, carboxyl, carboxamido, nitro, acyloxy, aminoalkyl, alkylaminoaryl, alkylaryl, alkylaminoalkyl, alkoxyaryl, arylamino, arylalkylamino, alkylsulfonyl, carboxamidoalkylaryl, carboxamidoaryl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, alkylaminoalkylcarboxy, aminocarboxamidoalkyl, cyano, alkoxyalkyl, perhaloalkyl, arylalkyloxyalkyl, and the like.

As used herein, the term “natural oil” refers to an oil derived from a plant or animal source. The term “natural oil” includes natural oil derivatives, unless otherwise indicated. The plant or animal sources can be modified plant or animal sources (e.g., genetically modified plant or animal sources), unless indicated otherwise. Examples of natural oils include, but are not limited to, vegetable oils, algae oils, fish oils, animal fats, tall oils, derivatives of these oils, combinations of any of these oils, and the like. Representative non-limiting examples of vegetable oils include canola oil, rapeseed oil, coconut oil, corn oil, cottonseed oil, olive oil, palm oil, peanut oil, safflower oil, sesame oil, soybean oil, sunflower oil, linseed oil, palm kernel oil, tung oil, jatropha oil, mustard oil, pennycress oil, camelina oil, and castor oil. Representative non-limiting examples of animal fats include lard, tallow, poultry fat, yellow grease, and fish oil. Tall oils are by-products of wood pulp manufacture.

“Natural oil derivatives” refer to compounds (or mixtures of compounds) derived from natural oils using any one or combination of methods known in the art. Such methods include but are not limited to saponification, fat splitting, transesterification, esterification, hydrogenation (partial or full), isomerization, oxidation, reduction, and metathesis. Representative non-limiting examples of natural oil derivatives include gums, phospholipids, soapstock, acidulated soapstock, distillate or distillate sludge, fatty acids, and fatty acid alkyl esters (e.g., non-limiting examples such as 2-ethylhexyl ester), and hydroxy substituted variations thereof. For example, the natural oil derivative may be a fatty acid methyl ester (“FAME”) derived from the glyceride of the natural oil.

The term “contaminant” refers broadly and without limitation to any impurity, regardless of the amount in which it is present, admixed with a substrate to be used in olefin metathesis. A “catalyst poisoning contaminant” refers to a contaminant having the potential to adversely affect the performance of a metathesis catalyst. Examples of catalyst poisoning contaminants include, but are not limited to, water, peroxides, and hydroperoxides.

As used herein, the term “metal alkyl compound” refers to a compound having the formula MR_(m) wherein, M is a metal (e.g., a Group II metal or a Group IIIA metal), each R is independently an alkyl radical of 1 to about 20 carbon atoms, and subscript m corresponds to the valence of M. Examples of metal alkyl compounds include Mg(CH₃)₂, Zn(CH₃)₂, Al(CH₃)₃, and the like. Metal alkyl compounds also include substances having one or more halogen or hydride groups, such as Grignard reagents, diisobutylaluminum hydride, and the like.

III. DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS

In one aspect, the invention provides a method for synthesizing a fatty olefin derivative. The method includes:

a) contacting an olefin according to Formula I

with a metathesis reaction partner according to Formula II

in the presence of a metathesis catalyst under conditions sufficient to form a metathesis product; and

b) optionally converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative;

wherein:

R¹ is selected from H, C₁₋₁₈ alkyl, and C₂₋₁₈ alkenyl;

R² is selected from —(CH₂)_(x)OR^(2a) and —(CH₂)_(y)COOR^(2b), wherein R^(2a) is an alcohol protecting group and R^(2b) is C₁₋₈ alkyl;

subscript x is an integer ranging from 1 to 18;

subscript y is an integer ranging from 0 to 17; and

subscript z is an integer ranging from 0 to 17.

In some embodiments, the invention provides a method for synthesizing a fatty olefin derivative including:

a) contacting an olefin according to Formula I

with a metathesis reaction partner according to Formula II

in the presence of a metathesis catalyst under conditions sufficient to form a metathesis product; and

b) optionally converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative; wherein:

R¹ is selected from H, C₁₋₁₈ alkyl, and C₂₋₁₈ alkenyl;

R² is selected from —(CH₂)_(x)OR^(2a) and —(CH₂)_(y)COOR^(2b), wherein R^(2a) is an alcohol protecting group and R^(2b) is C₁₋₈ alkyl;

subscript x is an integer ranging from 1 to 18;

subscript y is an integer ranging from 0 to 17; and

subscript z is an integer ranging from 0 to 17;

wherein the metathesis catalyst is a tungsten catalyst or a molybdenum catalyst.

In the methods of the invention, olefins can be reacted with a variety of metathesis reaction partners to obtain pheromones, pheromone precursors, and other useful fatty olefin derivatives.

Metathesis of Fatty Alcohols

Certain embodiments of the method are summarized in Scheme 1. A fatty alcohol containing an appropriate protecting group is reacted with an α-olefin in the presence of a group VI olefin metathesis catalyst (e.g., a Z-selective Group VI metathesis catalyst) to produce a statistical mixture of the desired cross-metathesis product and the self-metathesis co-products. The ratio of the feedstocks can be adjusted to vary the ratio of products. For example, feeding the reactants in a 1.5:1 molar ratio of α-olefin to protected fatty alcohol can result in a 3:2.25:1 ratio of the internal olefin, metathesis product, and protected diol products. This process condition results in the efficient utilization of the more costly protected fatty alcohol.

Products obtained from metathesis of protected fatty alcohols can be converted to a number of pheromones, as set forth in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Pheromones accessible from fatty alcohol metathesis products. Metathesis Exemplary Pheromone Olefin Reaction Partner Metathesis Product Pheromone CAS # propylene oleyl alcohol protected (Z)-9- (Z)-9-undecenyl 85576-13-2 undecenol acetate 1-butene oleyl alcohol protected (Z)-9- (Z)-9-dodecenal 56219-03-5 dodecenol 1-butene oleyl alcohol protected (Z)-9- (Z)-9-dodecenyl 16974-11-1 dodecenol acetate 1-pentene oleyl alcohol protected (Z)-9- (Z)-9-tridecenyl 35835-78-0 tridecenol acetate 1-hexene oleyl alcohol protected (Z)-9- (Z)-9-tetradecenal 53939-27-8 tetradecenol 1-hexene oleyl alcohol protected (Z)-9- (Z)-9-tetradecenyl 16725-53-4 tetradecenol acetate 1-hexene oleyl alcohol protected (Z)-9- (Z)-9-tetradecenyl 56776-10-4 tetradecenol formate 1-hexene oleyl alcohol protected (Z)-9- (Z)-9-tetradecenyl 143816-21-1 tetradecenol nitrate 1-heptene oleyl alcohol protected (Z)-9- (Z)-9-pentadecenyl 64437-41-8 pentadecenol acetate 1-octene oleyl alcohol protected (Z)-9- (Z)-9-hexadecenal 56219-04-6 hexadecenol 1-octene oleyl alcohol protected (Z)-9- (Z)-9-hexadecenyl 34010-20-3 hexadecenol acetate propylene 9-decen-1-ol protected (Z)-9- (Z)-9-undecenyl 85576-13-2 undecenol acetate 1-butene 9-decen-1-ol protected (Z)-9- (Z)-9-dodecenal 56219-03-5 dodecenol 1-butene 9-decen-1-ol protected (Z)-9- (Z)-9-dodecenyl 16974-11-1 dodecenol acetate 1-pentene 9-decen-1-ol protected (Z)-9- (Z)-9-tridecenyl 35835-78-0 tridecenol acetate 1-hexene 9-decen-1-ol protected (Z)-9- (Z)-9-tetradecenal 53939-27-8 tetradecenol 1-hexene 9-decen-1-ol protected (Z)-9- (Z)-9-tetradecenyl 16725-53-4 tetradecenol acetate 1-hexene 9-decen-1-ol protected (Z)-9- (Z)-9-tetradecenyl 56776-10-4 tetradecenol formate 1-hexene 9-decen-1-ol protected (Z)-9- (Z)-9-tetradecenyl 143816-21-1 tetradecenol nitrate 1-heptene 9-decen-1-ol protected (Z)-9- (Z)-9-pentadecenyl 64437-41-8 pentadecenol acetate 1-octene 9-decen-1-ol protected (Z)-9- (Z)-9-hexadecenal 56219-04-6 hexadecenol 1-octene 9-decen-1-ol protected (Z)-9- (Z)-9-hexadecenyl 34010-20-3 hexadecenol acetate propylene 10-undecen-1-ol protected (Z)-10- (Z)-10-dodecenyl 35148-20-0 dodecenol acetate 1-butene 10-undecen-1-ol protected (Z)-10- (Z)-10-tridecenyl 64437-24-7 tridecenol acetate 1-pentene 10-undecen-1-ol protected (Z)-10- (Z)-10-tetradecenyl 35153-16-3 tetradecenol acetate 1-hexene 10-undecen-1-ol protected (Z)-10- (Z)-10-pentadecenal 60671-80-9 pentadecenol 1-hexene 10-undecen-1-ol protected (Z)-10- (Z)-10-pentadecenyl 64437-43-0 pentadecenol acetate 1-heptene 10-undecen-1-ol protected (Z)-10- (Z)-10-hexadecenyl 56218-71-4 hexadecenol acetate 1-butene 8-octen-1-ol protected (Z)-7- (Z)-7-decenyl acetate 13857-03-9 decenol 1-pentene 8-octen-1-ol protected (Z)-7- (Z)-7-undecenyl — undecenol acetate 1-hexene 8-octen-1-ol protected (Z)-7- (E)-7-dodecenal 60671-75-2 dodecenol 1-hexene 8-octen-1-ol protected (Z)-7- (Z)-7-dodecenyl 14959-86-5 dodecenol acetate 1-octene 8-octen-1-ol protected (Z)-7- (Z)-7-tetradecenal 65128-96-3 tetradecenol 1-octene 8-octen-1-ol protected (Z)-7- (Z)-7-tetradecenyl 16974-10-0 tetradecenol acetate 1-decene 8-octen-1-ol protected (Z)-7- (Z)-7-hexadecenal 56797-40-1 hexadecenol 1-decene 8-octen-1-ol protected (Z)-7- (Z)-7-hexadecenyl 23192-42-9 hexadecenol acetate

Accordingly, some embodiments of the invention provide a method wherein the metathesis reaction partner is a protected alcohol according to Formula IIa:

wherein R^(2a) is an alcohol protecting group,

and wherein the metathesis product is a compound according to Formula IIIa:

Any protecting group R^(2a) that is stable under the metathesis reaction conditions can be used in the methods of the invention. Examples of suitable protecting groups include, but are not limited to, silyl, tert-butyl, benzyl, and acetyl. In some embodiments, R^(2a) is acetyl.

In some embodiments, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative includes removing R^(2a) from the compound of Formula IIIa to form an alkenol according to Formula Va:

In some embodiments, the metathesis reaction partner is a protected alcohol according to Formula IIa:

wherein R^(2a) is an alcohol protecting group,

and the metathesis product is a compound according to Formula IIIc:

In some embodiments, the metathesis reaction partner is a protected alcohol according to Formula IIc:

wherein R^(2a) is an alcohol protecting group,

and the metathesis product is a compound according to Formula IIIc:

Metathesis products of Formula IIIc can be prepared using Z-selective metathesis catalysts.

In some embodiments, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative includes removing R^(2a) from the compound of Formula IIIc to form an alkenol according to Formula Vc:

Conversion of Fatty Alcohol Metathesis Products to Fatty Olefin Derivatives

In some embodiments, the alkenol is the fatty olefin derivative. In some embodiments, an alkenol is converted to a desired fatty olefin derivative product via one or more chemical or biochemical transformations. In some such embodiments, the fatty olefin derivative is a pheromone.

In some embodiments, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative further includes acylating the alkenol of Formula Va, thereby forming a fatty olefin derivative according to Formula VIa:

wherein R^(2c) is C₁₋₆ acyl.

In some embodiments, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative further includes acylating the alkenol of Formula Vc, thereby forming a fatty olefin derivative according to Formula VIc:

wherein R^(2c) is C₁₋₆ acyl.

Any acylating agent suitable for forming the fatty olefin derivative of Formula VIa or Formula VIc can be used in the method of the invention. Examples of suitable acylating agents include acid anhydrides (e.g., acetic anhydride), acid chlorides (e.g., acetyl chloride), activated esters (e.g., pentafluorophenyl esters of carboxylic acids), and carboxylic acids used with coupling agents such as dicyclohexylcarbodiimide or carbonyl diimidazole. Typically, 1-10 molar equivalents of the acylating agent with respect to the alkenol will be used. For example, 1-5 molar equivalents of the acylating agent or 1-2 molar equivalents of the acylating agent can be used. In some embodiments, around 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, or 1.5 molar equivalents of the acylating agent (e.g., acetic anhydride) with respect to the alkenol is used to form the fatty olefin derivative of Formula VIa or Formula VIc.

A base can be used to promote acylation of the alkenol by the acylating agent. Examples of suitable bases include potassium carbonate, sodium carbonate, sodium acetate, Huenig's base (i.e., N,N-diisopropylethylamine), lutidines including 2,6-lutidine (i.e., 2,6-dimethylpyridine), triethylamine, tributylamine, pyridine, 2,6-di-tert-butylpyridine, 1,8-diazabicycloundec-7-ene (DBU), quinuclidine, and the collidines. Combinations of two or more bases can be used. Typically, less than one molar equivalent of base with respect to the alkenol will be employed in the methods of the invention. For example, 0.05-0.9 molar equivalents or 0.1-0.5 molar equivalents of the base can be used. In some embodiments, around 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, or 0.2 molar equivalents of the base (e.g., sodium acetate) with respect to the alkenol is used in conjuction with the acylating agent (e.g., acetic anhydride) to form the fatty olefin derivative of Formula VIa or Formula VIc.

Any suitable solvent can be used for acylating the alkenol. Suitable solvents include, but are not limited to, toluene, methylene chloride, ethyl acetate, acetonitrile, tetrahydrofuran, benzene, chloroform, diethyl ether, dimethyl formamide, dimethyl sulfoxide, petroleum ether, and mixtures thereof. Alternatively, an alkenol such as 7-octen-1-ol can be combined with an acylating agent such as acetic anhydride and a base such as sodium acetate without an additional solvent. The acylation reaction is typically conducted at temperatures ranging from around 25° C. to about 100° C. for a period of time sufficient to form the fatty olefin derivative of Formula VIa or Formula VIc. The reaction can be conducted for a period of time ranging from a few minutes to several hours or longer, depending on the particular alkenol and acylating agent used in the reaction. For example, the reaction can be conducted for around 10 minutes, or around 30 minutes, or around 1 hour, or around 2 hours, or around 4 hours, or around 8 hours, or around 12 hours at around 40° C., or around 50° C., or around 60° C., or around 70° C., or around 80° C.

In some embodiments, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative further includes oxidizing the alkenol of Formula Va, thereby forming a fatty olefin derivative according to Formula VIIa:

Many insect pheromones are fatty aldehydes or comprise a fatty aldehyde component. As such, synthesis of certain pheromones includes the conversion of alkenols prepared according to the methods of the invention to fatty aldehydes. In some embodiments, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative further includes oxidizing the alkenol of Formula Vc, thereby forming a fatty olefin derivative according to Formula VIIc:

Any oxidizing agent suitable for converting the alkenol Formula Va to the fatty olefin derivative of Formula VIIa or Formula VIIc can be used in the methods of the invention. Examples of suitable oxidizing agents include, but are not limited to, chromium-based reagents (e.g., chromic acid; Jones reagent—chromium trioxide in aqueous sulfuric acid; Collins reagent—chromium trioxide pyridine complex; pyridinium dichromate; pyridinium chlorochromate and the like); dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)-based reagents (e.g., DMSO/oxalyl chloride; DMSO/diycyclohexyl-carbodiimide; DMSO/acetic anhydride; DMSO/phosphorous pentoxide; DMSO/trifluoroacetic anhydride; and the like); hypervalent iodine compounds (e.g., Dess-Martin periodinane; o-iodoxybenzoic acid; and the like); ruthenium-based reagents (e.g., ruthenium tetroxide; tetra-n-propylammonium perruthenate; and the like); and nitroxyl-based reagents (e.g., TEMPO-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine 1-oxyl—employed with sodium hypochlorite, bromine, or the like).

Oxidation of fatty alcohols is often achieved, for example, via selective oxidation via pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC) (Scheme 2).

Alternatively, TEMPO (TEMPO═2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidinyl-N-oxyl) and related catalyst systems can be used to selectively oxidize alcohols to aldehydes. These methods are described in Ryland and Stahl (2014), herein incorporated by reference in its entirety.

Bio-oxidation of Terminal Alcohols

The conversion of a fatty alcohol to a fatty aldehyde is known to be catalyzed by alcohol dehydrogenases (ADH) and alcohol oxidases (AOX). Additionally, the conversion of a length C_(n) fatty acid to a C_(n-1) fatty aldehyde is catalyzed by plant α-dioxygenases (α-DOX) (Scheme 3).

In some embodiments, an alcohol oxidase (AOX) is used to catalyze the conversion of a fatty alcohol to a fatty aldehyde. Alcohol oxidases catalyze the conversion of alcohols into corresponding aldehydes (or ketones) with electron transfer via the use of molecular oxygen to form hydrogen peroxide as a by-product. AOX enzymes utilize flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) as an essential cofactor and regenerate with the help of oxygen in the reaction medium. Catalase enzymes may be coupled with the AOX to avoid accumulation of the hydrogen peroxide via catalytic conversion into water and oxygen.

Based on the substrate specificities, AOXs may be categorized into four groups: (a) short chain alcohol oxidase, (b) long chain alcohol oxidase, (c) aromatic alcohol oxidase, and (d) secondary alcohol oxidase (Goswami et al. 2013). Depending on the chain length of the desired substrate, some member of these four groups are better suited for use in the methods of the invention than others.

Short chain alcohol oxidases (including but not limited to those currently classified as EC 1.1.3.13, Table 2) catalyze the oxidation of lower chain length alcohol substrates in the range of C1-C8 carbons (van der Klei et al. 1991) (Ozimek et al. 2005). Aliphatic alcohol oxidases from methylotrophic yeasts such as Candida boidinii and Komagataella pastoris (formerly Pichia pastoris) catalyze the oxidation of primary alkanols to the corresponding aldehydes with a preference for unbranched short-chain aliphatic alcohols. The most broad substrate specificity is found for alcohol oxidase from the Pichia pastoris including propargyl alcohol, 2-chloroethanol, 2-cyanoethanol (Dienys et al. 2003). The major challenge encountered in alcohol oxidation is the high reactivity of the aldehyde product. Utilization of a two liquid phase system (water/solvent) can provide in-situ removal of the aldehyde product from the reaction phase before it is further converted to the acid. For example, hexanal production from hexanol using Pichia pastoris alcohol oxidase coupled with bovine liver catalase was achieved in a bi-phasic system by taking advantage of the presence of a stable alcohol oxidase in aqueous phase (Karra-Chaabouni et al. 2003). For example, alcohol oxidase from Pichia pastoris was able to oxidize aliphatic alcohols of C6 to C11 when used biphasic organic reaction system (Murray and Duff 1990). Methods for using alcohol oxidases in a biphasic system according to (Karra-Chaabouni et al. 2003) and (Murray and Duff 1990) are incorporated by reference in their entirety.

Long chain alcohol oxidases (including but not limited to those currently classified as EC 1.1.3.20; Table 3) include fatty alcohol oxidases, long chain fatty acid oxidases, and long chain fatty alcohol oxidases that oxidize alcohol substrates with carbon chain length of greater than six (Goswami et al. 2013). Banthorpe et al. reported a long chain alcohol oxidase purified from the leaves of Tanacetum vulgare that was able to oxidize saturated and unsaturated long chain alcohol substrates including hex-trans-2-en-1-ol and octan-1-ol (Banthorpe 1976) (Cardemil 1978). Other plant species, including Simmondsia chinensis (Moreau, R. A., Huang 1979), Arabidopsis thaliana (Cheng et al. 2004), and Lotus japonicas (Zhao et al. 2008) have also been reported as sources of long chain alcohol oxidases. Fatty alcohol oxidases are mostly reported from yeast species (Hommel and Ratledge 1990) (Vanhanen et al. 2000) (Hommel et al. 1994) (Kemp et al. 1990) and these enzymes play an important role in long chain fatty acid metabolism (Cheng et al. 2005). Fatty alcohol oxidases from yeast species that degrade and grow on long chain alkanes and fatty acid catalyze the oxidation of fatty alcohols. Fatty alcohol oxidase from Candida tropicalis has been isolated as microsomal cell fractions and characterized for a range of substrates (Eirich et al. 2004) (Kemp et al. 1988) (Kemp et al. 1991) (Mauersberger et al. 1992). Significant activity is observed for primary alcohols of length C₈ to C₁₆ with reported K_(M) in the 10-50 μM range (Eirich et al. 2004). Alcohol oxidases described may be used for the conversion of medium chain aliphatic alcohols to aldehydes as described, for example, for whole-cells Candida boidinii (Gabelman and Luzio 1997), and Pichia pastoris (Duff and Murray 1988) (Murray and Duff 1990). Long chain alcohol oxidases from filamentous fungi were produced during growth on hydrocarbon substrates (Kumar and Goswami 2006) (Savitha and Ratledge 1991). The long chain fatty alcohol oxidase (LjFAO1) from Lotus japonicas has been heterologously expressed in E. coli and exhibited broad substrate specificity for alcohol oxidation including 1-dodecanol and 1-hexadecanol (Zhao et al. 2008).

TABLE 2 Alcohol oxidase enzymes capable of oxidizing short chain alcohols (EC 1.1.3.13). Organism Gene names Accession No. Komagataella pastoris (strain ATCC 76273/CBS 7435/ AOX1 PP7435_Chr4-0130 F2QY27 CECT 11047/NRRL Y-11430/Wegner 21-1) (Yeast) (Pichia pastoris) Komagataella pastoris (strain GS115/ATCC 20864) AOX1 PAS_chr4_0821 P04842 (Yeast) (Pichia pastoris) Komagataella pastoris (strain ATCC 76273/CBS 7435/ AOX2 PP7435_Chr4-0863 F2R038 CECT 11047/NRRL Y-11430/Wegner 21-1) (Yeast) (Pichia pastoris) Komagataella pastoris (strain GS115/ATCC 20864) AOX2 PAS_chr4_0152 C4R702 (Yeast) (Pichia pastoris) Candida boidinii (Yeast) AOD1 Q00922 Pichia angusta (Yeast) (Hansenula polymorpha) MOX P04841 Thanatephorus cucumeris (strain AG1-IB/isolate AOD1 BN14_10802 M5CC52 7/3/14) (Lettuce bottom rot fungus) (Rhizoctonia solani) Thanatephorus cucumeris (strain AG1-IB/isolate MOX BN14_12214 M5CF32 7/3/14) (Lettuce bottom rot fungus) (Rhizoctonia solani) Thanatephorus cucumeris (strain AG1-IB/isolate AOD1 BN14_10691 M5CAV1 7/3/14) (Lettuce bottom rot fungus) (Rhizoctonia solani) Thanatephorus cucumeris (strain AG1-IB/isolate AOD1 BN14_09479 M5C7F4 7/3/14) (Lettuce bottom rot fungus) (Rhizoctonia solani) Thanatephorus cucumeris (strain AG1-IB/isolate AOD1 BN14_10803 M5CB66 7/3/14) (Lettuce bottom rot fungus) (Rhizoctonia solani) Thanatephorus cucumeris (strain AG1-IB/isolate AOD1 BN14_09900 M5C9N9 7/3/14) (Lettuce bottom rot fungus) (Rhizoctonia solani) Thanatephorus cucumeris (strain AG1-IB/isolate AOD1 BN14_08302 M5C2L8 7/3/14) (Lettuce bottom rot fungus) (Rhizoctonia solani) Thanatephorus cucumeris (strain AG1-IB/isolate MOX BN14_09408 M5C784 7/3/14) (Lettuce bottom rot fungus) (Rhizoctonia solani) Thanatephorus cucumeris (strain AG1-IB/isolate MOX BN14_09478 M5C8F8 7/3/14) (Lettuce bottom rot fungus) (Rhizoctonia solani) Thanatephorus cucumeris (strain AG1-IB/isolate AOD1 BN14_11356 M5CH40 7/3/14) (Lettuce bottom rot fungus) (Rhizoctonia solani) Ogataea henricii AOD1 A5LGF0 Candida methanosorbosa AOD1 A5LGE5 Candida methanolovescens AOD1 A5LGE4 Candida succiphila AOD1 A5LGE6 Aspergillus niger (strain CBS 513.88/FGSC A1513) An15g02200 A2R501 Aspergillus niger (strain CBS 513.88/FGSC A1513) An18g05480 A2RB46 Moniliophthora perniciosa (Witches'-broom disease I7CMK2 fungus) (Marasmius perniciosus) Candida cariosilignicola AOD1 A5LGE3 Candida pignaliae AOD1 A5LGE1 Candida pignaliae AOD2 A5LGE2 Candida sonorensis AOD1 A5LGD9 Candida sonorensis AOD2 A5LGE0 Pichia naganishii AOD1 A5LGF2 Ogataea minuta AOD1 A5LGF1 Ogataea philodendri AOD1 A5LGF3 Ogataea wickerhamii AOD1 A5LGE8 Kuraishia capsulata AOD1 A5LGE7 Talaromyces stipitatus (strain ATCC 10500/CBS TSTA_021940 B8MHF8 375.48/QM 6759/NRRL 1006) (Penicillium stipitatum) Talaromyces stipitatus (strain ATCC 10500/CBS TSTA_065150 B8LTH7 375.48/QM 6759/NRRL 1006) (Penicillium stipitatum) Talaromyces stipitatus (strain ATCC 10500/CBS TSTA_065150 B8LTH8 375.48/QM 6759/NRRL 1006) (Penicillium stipitatum) Talaromyces stipitatus (strain ATCC 10500/CBS TSTA_000410 B8MSB1 375.48/QM 6759/NRRL 1006) (Penicillium stipitatum) Ogataea glucozyma AOD1 A5LGE9 Ogataea parapolymorpha (strain DL-1/ATCC 26012/ HPODL_03886 W1QCJ3 NRRL Y-7560) (Yeast) (Hansenula polymorpha) Gloeophyllum trabeum (Brown rot fungus) AOX A8DPS4 Pichia angusta (Yeast) (Hansenula polymorpha) mox1 A6PZG8 Pichia trehalophila AOD1 A5LGF4 Pichia angusta (Yeast) (Hansenula polymorpha) mox1 A6PZG9 Pichia angusta (Yeast) (Hansenula polymorpha) mox1 A6PZG7 Ixodes scapularis (Black-legged tick) (Deer tick) IscW_ISCW017898 B7PIZ7

TABLE 3 Alcohol oxidase enzymes capable of oxidizing long chain alcohols including fatty alcohols (EC 1.1.3.20). Organism Gene names Accession No. Lotus japonicus (Lotus corniculatus var. japonicus) FAO1 B5WWZ8 Arabidopsis thaliana (Mouse-ear cress) FAO1 At1g03990 F21M11.7 Q9ZWB9 Lotus japonicus (Lotus corniculatus var. japonicus) FAO2 B5WWZ9 Arabidopsis thaliana (Mouse-ear cress) FAO3 At3g23410 MLM24.14 Q9LW56 MLM24.23 Arabidopsis thaliana (Mouse-ear cress) FAO4A At4g19380 T5K18.160 O65709 Arabidopsis thaliana (Mouse-ear cress) FAO4B At4g28570 T5F17.20 Q94BP3 Microbotryum violaceum (strain p1A1 Lamole) MVLG_06864 U5HIL4 (Anther smut fungus) (Ustilago violacea) Ajellomyces dermatitidis ATCC 26199 BDFG_03507 T5BNQ0 Gibberella zeae (strain PH-1/ATCC MYA-4620/ FG06918.1 FGSG_06918 I1RS14 FGSC 9075/NRRL 31084) (Wheat head blight fungus) (Fusarium graminearum) Pichia sorbitophila (strain ATCC MYA-4447/ Piso0_004410 G8Y5E1 BCRC 22081/CBS 7064/NBRC 10061/NRRL GNLVRS01_PISO0K16268g Y-12695) (Hybrid yeast) GNLVRS01_PISO0L16269g Emericella nidulans (strain FGSC A4/ATCC AN0623.2 ANIA_00623 Q5BFQ7 38163/CBS 112.46/NRRL 194/M139) (Aspergillus nidulans) Pyrenophora tritici-repentis (strain Pt-1C-BFP) PTRG_10154 B2WJW5 (Wheat tan spot fungus) (Drechslera tritici-repentis) Paracoccidioides lutzii (strain ATCC MYA-826/ PAAG_09117 C1HEC6 Pb01) (Paracoccidioides brasiliensis) Candida parapsilosis (strain CDC 317/ATCC CPAR2_204420 G8BG15 MYA-4646) (Yeast) (Monilia parapsilosis) Pseudozyma brasiliensis (strain GHG001) (Yeast) PSEUBRA_SCAF2g03010 V5GPS6 Candida parapsilosis (strain CDC 317/ATCC CPAR2_204430 G8BG16 MYA-4646) (Yeast) (Monilia parapsilosis) Sclerotinia borealis F-4157 SBOR_5750 W9CDE2 Sordaria macrospora (strain ATCC MYA-333/ SMAC_06361 F7W6K4 DSM 997/K(L3346)/K-hell) Sordaria macrospora (strain ATCC MYA-333/ SMAC_01933 F7VSA1 DSM 997/K(L3346)/K-hell) Meyerozyma guilliermondii (strain ATCC 6260/ PGUG_03467 A5DJL6 CBS 566/DSM 6381/JCM 1539/NBRC 10279/ NRRL Y-324) (Yeast) (Candida guilliermondii) Trichophyton rubrum CBS 202.88 H107_00669 A0A023ATC5 Arthrobotrys oligospora (strain ATCC 24927/CBS AOL_s00097g516 G1XJI9 115.81/DSM 1491) (Nematode-trapping fungus) (Didymozoophaga oligospora) Scheffersomyces stipitis (strain ATCC 58785/CBS FAO1 PICST_90828 A3LYX9 6054/NBRC 10063/NRRL Y-11545) (Yeast) (Pichia stipitis) Scheffersomyces stipitis (strain ATCC 58785/CBS FAO2 PICST_32359 A3LW61 6054/NBRC 10063/NRRL Y-11545) (Yeast) (Pichia stipitis) Aspergillus oryzae (strain 3.042) (Yellow koji mold) Ao3042_09114 I8TL25 Fusarium oxysporum (strain Fo5176) (Fusarium FOXB_17532 F9GFU8 vascular wilt) Rhizopus delemar (strain RA 99-880/ATCC MYA- RO3G_08271 I1C536 4621/FGSC 9543/NRRL 43880) (Mucormycosis agent) (Rhizopus arrhizus var. delemar) Rhizopus delemar (strain RA 99-880/ATCC MYA- RO3G_00154 I1BGX0 4621/FGSC 9543/NRRL 43880) (Mucormycosis agent) (Rhizopus arrhizus var. delemar) Fusarium oxysporum (strain Fo5176) (Fusarium FOXB_07532 F9FMA2 vascular wilt) Penicillium roqueforti PROQFM164_S02g001772 W6QPY1 Aspergillus clavatus (strain ATCC 1007/CBS ACLA_018400 A1CNB5 513.65/DSM 816/NCTC 3887/NRRL 1) Arthroderma otae (strain ATCC MYA-4605/CBS MCYG_08732 C5G1B0 113480) (Microsporum canis) Trichophyton tonsurans (strain CBS 112818) (Scalp TESG_07214 F2S8I2 ringworm fungus) Colletotrichum higginsianum (strain IMI 349063) CH063_13441 H1VUE7 (Crucifer anthracnose fungus) Ajellomyces capsulatus (strain H143) (Darling's HCDG_07658 C6HN77 disease fungus) (Histoplasma capsulatum) Trichophyton rubrum (strain ATCC MYA-4607/ TERG_08235 F2T096 CBS 118892) (Athlete's foot fungus) Cochliobolus heterostrophus (strain C5/ATCC COCHEDRAFT_1201414 M2UMT9 48332/race O) (Southern corn leaf blight fungus) (Bipolaris maydis) Candida orthopsilosis (strain 90-125) (Yeast) CORT_0D04510 H8X643 Candida orthopsilosis (strain 90-125) (Yeast) CORT_0D04520 H8X644 Candida orthopsilosis (strain 90-125) (Yeast) CORT_0D04530 H8X645 Pseudozyma aphidis DSM 70725 PaG_03027 W3VP49 Coccidioides posadasii (strain C735) (Valley fever CPC735_000380 C5P005 fungus) Magnaporthe oryzae (strain P131) (Rice blast OOW_P131scaffold01214g15 L7IZ92 fungus) (Pyricularia oryzae) Neurospora tetrasperma (strain FGSC 2508/ATCC NEUTE1DRAFT_82541 F8MKD1 MYA-4615/P0657) Hypocrea virens (strain Gv29-8/FGSC 10586) TRIVIDRAFT_54537 G9MMY7 (Gliocladium virens) (Trichoderma virens) Hypocrea virens (strain Gv29-8/FGSC 10586) TRIVIDRAFT_53801 G9MT89 (Gliocladium virens) (Trichoderma virens) Aspergillus niger (strain CBS 513.88/FGSC An01g09620 A2Q9Z3 A1513) Verticillium dahliae (strain VdLs.17/ATCC MYA- VDAG_05780 G2X6J8 4575/FGSC 10137) (Verticillium wilt) Ustilago maydis (strain 521/FGSC 9021) (Corn UM02023.1 Q4PCZ0 smut fungus) Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici MN25 FOWG_13006 W9LNI9 Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici MN25 FOWG_02542 W9N9Z1 Candida tropicalis (Yeast) FAO1 Q6QIR6 Magnaporthe oryzae (strain 70-15/ATCC MYA- MGG_11317 G4MVK1 4617/FGSC 8958) (Rice blast fungus) (Pyricularia oryzae) Candida tropicalis (Yeast) faot Q9P8D9 Candida tropicalis (Yeast) FAO2a Q6QIR5 Phaeosphaeria nodorum (strain SN15/ATCC SNOG_02371 Q0V0U3 MYA-4574/FGSC 10173) (Glume blotch fungus) (Septoria nodorum) Candida tropicalis (Yeast) FAO2b Q6QIR4 Pestalotiopsis fici W106-1 PFICI_11209 W3WU04 Magnaporthe oryzae (strain Y34) (Rice blast OOU_Y34scaffold00240g57 L7IFT5 fungus) (Pyricularia oryzae) Pseudogymnoascus destructans (strain ATCC GMDG_01756 L8G0G6 MYA-4855/20631-21) (Bat white-nose syndrome fungus) (Geomyces destructans) Pseudogymnoascus destructans (strain ATCC GMDG_04950 L8GCY2 MYA-4855/20631-21) (Bat white-nose syndrome fungus) (Geomyces destructans) Mycosphaerella fijiensis (strain CIRAD86) (Black MYCFIDRAFT_52380 M2Z831 leaf streak disease fungus) (Pseudocercospora fijiensis) Bipolaris oryzae ATCC 44560 COCMIDRAFT_84580 W7A0I8 Cladophialophora psammophila CBS 110553 A1O5_08147 W9WTM9 Fusarium oxysporam f. sp. melonis 26406 FOMG_05173 X0AEE6 Fusarium oxysporam f. sp. melonis 26406 FOMG_17829 W9ZBB7 Cyphellophora europaea CBS 101466 HMPREF1541_02174 W2S2S5 Aspergillus kawachii (strain NBRC 4308) (White AKAW_00147 G7X626 koji mold) (Aspergillus awamori var. kawachi) Aspergillus terreus (strain NIH 2624/FGSC ATEG_05086 Q0CMJ8 A1156) Coccidioides immitis (strain RS) (Valley fever CIMG_02987 J3KAI8 fungus) Ajellomyces dermatitidis (strain ER-3/ATCC BDCG_04701 C5GLS5 MYA-2586) (Blastomyces dermatitidis) Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (strain race 1) FOC1_g10013865 N4U732 (Panama disease fungus) Rhodotorula glutinis (strain ATCC 204091/IIP 30/ RTG_00643 G0SVU8 MTCC 1151) (Yeast) Aspergillus niger (strain ATCC 1015/CBS 113.46/ ASPNIDRAFT_35778 G3XTM6 FGSC A1144/LSHB Ac4/NCTC 3858a/NRRL 328/USDA 3528.7) Candida cloacae fao1 Q9P8D8 Candida cloacae fao2 Q9P8D7 Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (strain race 1) FOC1_g10006358 N4TUH3 (Panama disease fungus) Candida albicans (strain SC5314/ATCC MYA- FAO1 CaO19.13562 Q59RS8 2876) (Yeast) orf19.13562 Candida albicans (strain SC5314/ATCC MYA- FAO1 CaO19.6143 orf19.6143 Q59RP0 2876) (Yeast) Chaetomium thermophilum (strain DSM 1495/ CTHT_0018560 G0S2U9 CBS 144.50/IMI 039719) Mucor circinelloides f. circinelloides (strain HMPREF1544_05296 S2JDN0 1006PhL) (Mucormycosis agent) (Calyptromyces circinelloides) Mucor circinelloides f. circinelloides (strain HMPREF1544_05295 S2JYP5 1006PhL) (Mucormycosis agent) (Calyptromyces circinelloides) Mucor circinelloides f. circinelloides (strain HMPREF1544_06348 S2JVK9 1006PhL) (Mucormycosis agent) (Calyptromyces circinelloides) Botryotinia fuckeliana (strain BcDW1) (Noble rot BcDW1_6807 M7UD26 fungus) (Botrytis cinerea) Podospora anserina (strain S/ATCC MYA-4624/ PODANS_5_13040 B2AFD8 DSM 980/FGSC 10383) (Pleurage anserina) Neosartorya fumigata (strain ATCC MYA-4609/ AFUA_1G17110 Q4WR91 Af293/CBS 101355/FGSC A1100) (Aspergillus fumigatus) Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum 25433 FOTG_00686 X0MEE6 Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum 25433 FOTG_12485 X0LE98 Trichophyton interdigitale H6 H101_06625 A0A022U717 Beauveria bassiana (strain ARSEF 2860) (White BBA_04100 J4UNY3 muscardine disease fungus) (Tritirachium shiotae) Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. radicis-lycopersici 26381 FOCG_00843 X0GQ62 Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. radicis-lycopersici 26381 FOCG_15170 X0F4T1 Neurospora tetrasperma (strain FGSC 2509/P0656) NEUTE2DRAFT_88670 G4UNN6 Pseudozyma hubeiensis (strain SY62) (Yeast) PHSY_000086 R9NVU1 Lodderomyces elongisporus (strain ATCC 11503/ LELG_03289 A5E102 CBS 2605/JCM 1781/NBRC 1676/NRRL YB- 4239) (Yeast) (Saccharomyces elongisporus) Malassezia globosa (strain ATCC MYA-4612/CBS MGL_3855 A8QAY8 7966) (Dandruff-associated fungus) Byssochlamys spectabilis (strain No. 5/NBRC PVAR5_7014 V5GBL6 109023) (Paecilomyces variotii) Ajellomyces capsulatus (strain H88) (Darling's HCEG_03274 F0UF47 disease fungus) (Histoplasma capsulatum) Trichosporon asahii var. asahii (strain ATCC 90039/ A1Q1_03669 J6FBP4 CBS 2479/JCM 2466/KCTC 7840/NCYC 2677/ UAMH 7654) (Yeast) Penicillium oxalicum (strain 114-2/CGMCC 5302) PDE_00027 S7Z8U8 (Penicillium decumbens) Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. conglutinans race 2 FOPG_02304 X0IBE3 54008 Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. conglutinans race 2 FOPG_13066 X0H540 54008 Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. raphani 54005 FOQG_00704 X0D1G8 Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. raphani 54005 FOQG_10402 X0C482 Metarhizium acridum (strain CQMa 102) MAC_03115 E9DZR7 Arthroderma benhamiae (strain ATCC MYA-4681/ ARB_02250 D4B1C1 CBS 112371) (Trichophyton mentagrophytes) Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense tropical race 4 FOIG_12161 X0JFI6 54006 Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense tropical race 4 FOIG_12751 X0JDU5 54006 Cochliobolus heterostrophus (strain C4/ATCC COCC4DRAFT_52836 N4WZZ0 48331/race T) (Southern corn leaf blight fungus) (Bipolaris maydis) Trichosporon asahii var. asahii (strain CBS 8904) A1Q2_00631 K1VZW1 (Yeast) Mycosphaerella graminicola (strain CBS 115943/ MYCGRDRAFT_37086 F9X375 IPO323) (Speckled leaf blotch fungus) (Septoria tritici) Botryotinia fuckeliana (strain T4) (Noble rot fungus) BofuT4_P072020.1 G2XQ18 (Botrytis cinerea) Metarhizium anisopliae (strain ARSEF 23/ATCC MAA_05783 E9F0I4 MYA-3075) Cladophialophora carrionii CBS 160.54 G647_05801 V9DAR1 Coccidioides posadasii (strain RMSCC 757/ CPSG_09174 E9DH75 Silveira) (Valley fever fungus) Rhodosporidium toruloides (strain NP11) (Yeast) RHTO_06879 M7X159 (Rhodotorula gracilis) Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici (strain CRL 75-36- PGTG_10521 E3KIL8 700-3/race SCCL) (Black stem rust fungus) Trichophyton rubrum CBS 288.86 H103_00624 A0A022WG28 Colletotrichum fioriniae PJ7 CFIO01_08202 A0A010RKZ4 Trichophyton rubrum CBS 289.86 H104_00611 A0A022XB46 Cladophialophora yegresii CBS 114405 A1O7_02579 W9WC55 Colletotrichum orbiculare (strain 104-T/ATCC Cob_10151 N4VFP3 96160/CBS 514.97/LARS 414/MAFF 240422) (Cucumber anthracnose fungus) (Colletotrichum lagenarium) Drechslerella stenobrocha 248 DRE_03459 W7IDL6 Neosartorya fumigata (strain CEA10/CBS 144.89/ AFUB_016500 B0XP90 FGSC A1163) (Aspergillus fumigatus) Thielavia terrestris (strain ATCC 38088/NRRL THITE_2117674 G2R8H9 8126) (Acremonium alabamense) Gibberella fujikuroi (strain CBS 195.34/IMI 58289/ FFUJ_02948 S0DZP7 NRRL A-6831) (Bakanae and foot rot disease fungus) (Fusarium fujikuroi) Gibberella fujikuroi (strain CBS 195.34/IMI 58289/ FFUJ_12030 S0EMC6 NRRL A-6831) (Bakanae and foot rot disease fungus) (Fusarium fujikuroi) Aspergillus flavus (strain ATCC 200026/FGSC AFLA_109870 B8N941 A1120/NRRL 3357/JCM 12722/SRRC 167) Togninia minima (strain UCR-PA7) (Esca disease UCRPA7_1719 R8BTZ6 fungus) (Phaeoacremonium aleophilum) Ajellomyces dermatitidis (strain ATCC 18188/ BDDG_09783 F2TUC0 CBS 674.68) (Blastomyces dermatitidis) Macrophomina phaseolina (strain MS6) (Charcoal MPH_10582 K2RHA5 rot fungus) Neurospora crassa (strain ATCC 24698/74-OR23- NCU08977 Q7S2Z2 1A/CBS 708.71/DSM 1257/FGSC 987) Neosartorya fischeri (strain ATCC 1020/DSM NFIA_008260 A1D156 3700/FGSC A1164/NRRL 181) (Aspergillus fischerianus) Fusarium pseudograminearum (strain CS3096) FPSE_11742 K3U9J5 (Wheat and barley crown-rot fungus) Spathaspora passalidarum (strain NRRL Y-27907/ SPAPADRAFT_54193 G3AJP0 11-Y1) Spathaspora passalidarum (strain NRRL Y-27907/ SPAPADRAFT_67198 G3ANX7 11-Y1) Trichophyton verrucosum (strain HKI 0517) TRV_07960 D4DL86 Arthroderma gypseum (strain ATCC MYA-4604/ MGYG_07264 E4V2J0 CBS 118893) (Microsporum gypseum) Hypocrea jecorina (strain QM6a) (Trichoderma TRIREDRAFT_43893 G0R7P8 reesei) Trichophyton rubrum MR1448 H110_00629 A0A022Z1G4 Aspergillus ruber CBS 135680 EURHEDRAFT_512125 A0A017SPR0 Glarea lozoyensis (strain ATCC 20868/MF5171) GLAREA_04397 S3D6C1 Setosphaeria turcica (strain 28A) (Northern leaf SETTUDRAFT_20639 R0K6H8 blight fungus) (Exserohilum turcicum) Paracoccidioides brasiliensis (strain Pb18) PADG_06552 C1GH16 Fusarium oxysporum Fo47 FOZG_13577 W9JPG9 Fusarium oxysporum Fo47 FOZG_05344 W9KPH3 Trichophyton rubrum MR1459 H113_00628 A0A022ZY09 Penicillium marneffei (strain ATCC 18224/CBS PMAA_075740 B6QBY3 334.59/QM 7333) Sphaerulina musiva (strain SO2202) (Poplar stem SEPMUDRAFT_154026 M3DAK6 canker fungus) (Septoria musiva) Gibberella moniliformis (strain M3125/FGSC FVEG_10526 W7N4P8 7600) (Maize ear and stalk rot fungus) (Fusarium verticillioides) Gibberella moniliformis (strain M3125/FGSC FVEG_08281 W7MVR9 7600) (Maize ear and stalk rot fungus) (Fusarium verticillioides) Pseudozyma antarctica (strain T-34) (Yeast) PANT_22d00298 M9MGF2 (Candida antarctica) Paracoccidioides brasiliensis (strain Pb03) PABG_07795 C0SJD4 Rhizophagus irregularis (strain DAOM 181602/ GLOINDRAFT_82554 U9TF61 DAOM 197198/MUCL 43194) (Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus) (Glomus intraradices) Penicillium chrysogenum (strain ATCC 28089/ Pc21g23700 PCH_Pc21g23700 B6HJ58 DSM 1075/Wisconsin 54-1255) (Penicillium notatum) Baudoinia compniacensis (strain UAMH 10762) BAUCODRAFT_274597 M2M6Z5 (Angels' share fungus) Hypocrea atroviridis (strain ATCC 20476/IMI TRIATDRAFT_280929 G9NJ32 206040) (Trichoderma atroviride) Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (strain Cg-14) CGLO_06642 T0LPH0 (Anthracnose fungus) (Glomerella cingulata) Cordyceps militaris (strain CM01) (Caterpillar CCM_02665 G3JB34 fungus) Pyronema omphalodes (strain CBS 100304) PCON_13062 U4LKE9 (Pyronema confluens) Colletotrichum graminicola (strain M1.001/M2/ GLRG_08499 E3QR67 FGSC 10212) (Maize anthracnose fungus) (Glomerella graminicola) Glarea lozoyensis (strain ATCC 74030/MF5533) M7I_2117 H0EHX4 Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (strain race 4) FOC4_g10002493 N1S969 (Panama disease fungus) Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (strain race 4) FOC4_g10011461 N1RT80 (Panama disease fungus) Cochliobolus sativus (strain ND90Pr/ATCC COCSADRAFT_295770 M2TBE4 201652) (Common root rot and spot blotch fungus) (Bipolaris sorokiniana) Mixia osmundae (strain CBS 9802/IAM 14324/ Mo05571 E5Q_05571 G7E7S3 JCM 22182/KY 12970) Mycosphaerella pini (strain NZE10/CBS 128990) DOTSEDRAFT_69651 N1PXR0 (Red band needle blight fungus) (Dothistroma septosporum) Grosmannia clavigera (strain kw 1407/UAMH CMQ_1113 F0XC64 11150) (Blue stain fungus) (Graphiocladiella clavigera) Fusarium oxysporum FOSC 3-a FOYG_03004 W9IUE5 Fusarium oxysporum FOSC 3-a FOYG_16040 W9HNP0 Fusarium oxysporum FOSC 3-a FOYG_17058 W9HB31 Nectria haematococca (strain 77-13-4/ATCC NECHADRAFT_37686 C7YQL1 MYA-4622/FGSC 9596/MPVI) (Fusarium solani subsp. pisi) Nectria haematococca (strain 77-13-4/ATCC NECHADRAFT_77262 C7ZJI0 MYA-4622/FGSC 9596/MPVI) (Fusarium solani subsp. pisi) Tuber melanosporum (strain Mel28) (Perigord black GSTUM_00010376001 D5GLS0 truffle) Ajellomyces dermatitidis (strain SLH14081) BDBG_07633 C5JYI9 (Blastomyces dermatitidis) Chaetomium globosum (strain ATCC 6205/CBS CHGG_09885 Q2GQ69 148.51/DSM 1962/NBRC 6347/NRRL 1970) (Soil fungus) Candida tenuis (strain ATCC 10573/BCRC 21748/ CANTEDRAFT_108652 G3B9Z1 CBS 615/JCM 9827/NBRC 10315/NRRL Y- 1498/VKM Y-70) (Yeast) Trichophyton rubrum CBS 100081 H102_00622 A0A022VKY4 Pyrenophora teres f. teres (strain 0-1) (Barley net PTT_09421 E3RLZ3 blotch fungus) (Drechslera teres f. teres) Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (strain Nara gc5) CGGC5_4608 L2GB29 (Anthracnose fungus) (Glomerella cingulata) Gibberella zeae (Wheat head blight fungus) FG05_06918 A0A016PCS4 (Fusarium graminearum) Trichophyton soudanense CBS 452.61 H105_00612 A0A022Y6A6 Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (strain ATCC 18683/1980/ SS1G_07437 A7EQ37 Ss-1) (White mold) (Whetzelinia sclerotiorum) Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. pisi HDV247 FOVG_14401 W9NWU8 Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. pisi HDV247 FOVG_02874 W9Q5V3 Ustilago hordei (strain Uh4875-4) (Barley covered UHOR_03009 I2G1Z4 smut fungus) Sporisorium reilianum (strain SRZ2) (Maize head sr12985 E6ZYF7 smut fungus) Bipolaris zeicola 26-R-13 COCCADRAFT_81154 W6YIP8 Melampsora larici-populina (strain 98AG31/ MELLADRAFT_78490 F4RUZ8 pathotype 3-4-7) (Poplar leaf rust fungus) Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici (strain 4287/ FOXG_01901 J9MG95 CBS 123668/FGSC 9935/NRRL 34936) (Fusarium vascular wilt of tomato) Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici (strain 4287/ FOXG_11941 J9N9S4 CBS 123668/FGSC 9935/NRRL 34936) (Fusarium vascular wilt of tomato) Bipolaris victoriae FI3 COCVIDRAFT_39053 W7EMJ8 Debaryomyces hansenii (strain ATCC 36239/CBS DEHA2E04268g Q6BQL4 767/JCM 1990/NBRC 0083/IGC 2968) (Yeast) (Torulaspora hansenii) Clavispora lusitaniae (strain ATCC 42720) (Yeast) CLUG_01505 C4XZX3 (Candida lusitaniae) Candida albicans (strain WO-1) (Yeast) CAWG_02023 C4YME4 Trichophyton rabrum MR850 H100_00625 A0A022U0Q2 Candida dubliniensis (strain CD36/ATCC MYA- CD36_32890 B9WMC7 646/CBS 7987/NCPF 3949/NRRL Y-17841) (Yeast) Starmerella bombicola AOX1 A0A024FB95 Thielavia heterothallica (strain ATCC 42464/ MYCTH_103590 G2QJL7 BCRC 31852/DSM 1799) (Myceliophthora thermophila) Claviceps purpurea (strain 20.1) (Ergot fungus) CPUR_07614 M1WFI4 (Sphacelia segetum) Aspergillus oryzae (strain ATCC 42149/RIB 40) AO090023000571 Q2UH61 (Yellow koji mold) Dictyostelium discoideum (Slime mold) DDB_0184181 Q54DT6 DDB_G0292042 Triticum urartu (Red wild einkorn) (Crithodium TRIUR3_22733 M7YME5 urartu) Solanum tuberosum (Potato) PGSC0003DMG400017211 M1BG07 Oryza sativa subsp. japonica (Rice) OSJNBb0044B19.5 Q8W5P8 LOC_Os10g33540 Oryza sativa subsp. japonica (Rice) OJ1234_B11.20 Os02g0621800 Q6K9N5 Oryza sativa subsp. japonica (Rice) OSJNBa0001K12.5 Q8W5P3 LOC_Os10g33520 Zea mays (Maize) ZEAMMB73_809149 C0P3J6 Citrus clementina CICLE_v10011111mg V4S9P4 Citrus clementina CICLE_v10018992mg V4U4C9 Citrus clementina CICLE_v10004405mg V4S9D3 Citrus clementina CICLE_v10004403mg V4RZZ6 Morus notabilis L484_011703 W9RIK0 Morus notabilis L484_005930 W9RET7 Medicago truncatula (Barrel medic) (Medicago MTR_1g075650 G7I4U3 tribuloides) Arabidopsis thaliana (Mouse-ear cress) Q8LDP0 Medicago truncatula (Barrel medic) (Medicago MTR_4g081080 G7JF07 tribuloides) Simmondsia chinensis (Jojoba) (Buxus chinensis) L7VFV2 Prunus persica (Peach) (Amygdalus persica) PRUPE_ppa018458mg M5VXL1 Aphanomyces astaci H257_07411 W4GI89 Aphanomyces astaci H257_07412 W4GI44 Aphanomyces astaci H257_07411 W4GKE3 Aphanomyces astaci H257_07411 W4GK29 Aphanomyces astaci H257_07411 W4GJ79 Aphanomyces astaci H257_07411 W4GI38 Phaeodactylum tricornutum (strain CCAP 1055/1) PHATRDRAFT_48204 B7G6C1 Hordeum vulgare var. distichum (Two-rowed F2E4R4 barley) Hordeum vulgare var. distichum (Two-rowed F2DZG1 barley) Hordeum vulgare var. distichum (Two-rowed M0YPG7 barley) Hordeum vulgare var. distichum (Two-rowed M0YPG6 barley) Hordeum vulgare var. distichum (Two-rowed F2CUY4 barley) Ricinus communis (Castor bean) RCOM_0867830 B9S1S3 Brassica rapa subsp. pekinensis (Chinese cabbage) BRA014947 M4DEM5 (Brassica pekinensis) Ricinus communis (Castor bean) RCOM_0258730 B9SV13 Brassica rapa subsp. pekinensis (Chinese cabbage) BRA001912 M4CCI2 (Brassica pekinensis) Brassica rapa subsp. pekinensis (Chinese cabbage) BRA012548 M4D7T8 (Brassica pekinensis) Brassica rapa subsp. pekinensis (Chinese cabbage) BRA024190 M4E5Y6 (Brassica pekinensis) Brassica rapa subsp. pekinensis (Chinese cabbage) BRA015283 M4DFL0 (Brassica pekinensis) Ricinus communis (Castor bean) RCOM_1168730 B9SS54 Zea mays (Maize) C4J691 Oryza glaberrima (African rice) I1P2B7 Zea mays (Maize) B6SXM3 Zea mays (Maize) C0HFU4 Aegilops tauschii (Tausch's goatgrass) (Aegilops F775_19577 R7W4J3 squarrosa) Solanum habrochaites (Wild tomato) (Lycopersicon R9R6T0 hirsutum) Physcomitrella patens subsp. patens (Moss) PHYPADRAFT_124285 A9S535 Physcomitrella patens subsp. patens (Moss) PHYPADRAFT_113581 A9RG13 Physcomitrella patens subsp. patens (Moss) PHYPADRAFT_182504 A9S9A5 Solanum pennellii (Tomato) (Lycopersicon R9R6Q1 pennellii) Vitis vinifera (Grape) VIT_02s0087g00630 F6HJ27 Vitis vinifera (Grape) VIT_07s0005g03780 F6HZM3 Vitis vinifera (Grape) VIT_05s0049g01400 F6H8T4 Vitis vinifera (Grape) VITISV_019349 A5AH38 Capsella rubella CARUB_v10013046mg R0HIT3 Capsella rubella CARUB_v10004212mg R0GUX4 Capsella rubella CARUB_v10004208mg R0F3X6 Capsella rubella CARUB_v10012453mg R0ILD0 Capsella rubella CARUB_v10004208mg R0GUX1 Eutrema salsugineum (Saltwater cress) (Sisymbrium EUTSA_v10024496mg V4MD54 salsugineum) Eutrema salsugineum (Saltwater cress) (Sisymbrium EUTSA_v10020141mg V4NM59 salsugineum) Eutrema salsugineum (Saltwater cress) (Sisymbrium EUTSA_v10024496mg V4LUR9 salsugineum) Eutrema salsugineum (Saltwater cress) (Sisymbrium EUTSA_v10024528mg V4P767 salsugineum) Eutrema salsugineum (Saltwater cress) (Sisymbrium EUTSA_v10006882mg V4L2P6 salsugineum) Selaginella moellendorffii (Spikemoss) SELMODRAFT_87684 D8R6Z6 Selaginella moellendorffii (Spikemoss) SELMODRAFT_87621 D8R6Z5 Selaginella moellendorffii (Spikemoss) SELMODRAFT_74601 D8QN81 Selaginella moellendorffii (Spikemoss) SELMODRAFT_73531 D8QN82 Sorghum bicolor (Sorghum) (Sorghum vulgare) Sb04g026390 C5XXS4 SORBIDRAFT _04g026390 Sorghum bicolor (Sorghum) (Sorghum vulgare) Sb04g026370 C5XXS1 SORBIDRAFT_04g026370 Sorghum bicolor (Sorghum) (Sorghum vulgare) Sb01g019470 C5WYH6 SORBIDRAFT_01g019470 Sorghum bicolor (Sorghum) (Sorghum vulgare) Sb01g019480 C5WYH7 SORBIDRAFT_01g019480 Sorghum bicolor (Sorghum) (Sorghum vulgare) Sb01g019460 C5WYH5 SORBIDRAFT_01g019460 Solanum pimpinellifolium (Currant tomato) R9R6J2 (Lycopersicon pimpinellifolium) Phaseolus vulgaris (Kidney bean) (French bean) PHAVU_007G124200g V7BGM7 Phaseolus vulgaris (Kidney bean) (French bean) PHAVU_011G136600g V7AI35 Phaseolus vulgaris (Kidney bean) (French bean) PHAVU_001G162800g V7D063 Solanum tuberosum (Potato) PGSC0003DMG400024294 M1C923 Solanum tuberosum (Potato) PGSC0003DMG400018458 M1BKV4 Solanum tuberosum (Potato) PGSC0003DMG400018458 M1BKV3 Glycine max (Soybean) (Glycine hispida) K7LK61 Glycine max (Soybean) (Glycine hispida) K7KXQ9 Populus trichocarpa (Western balsam poplar) POPTR_0008s16920g B9HKS3 (Populus balsamifera subsp. trichocarpa) Picea sitchensis (Sitka spruce) (Pinus sitchensis) B8LQ84 Populus trichocarpa (Western balsam poplar) POPTR_0004s24310g U5GKQ5 (Populus balsamifera subsp. trichocarpa) Populus trichocarpa (Western balsam poplar) POPTR_0010s07980g B9HSG9 (Populus balsamifera subsp. trichocarpa) Glycine max (Soybean) (Glycine hispida) I1N9S7 Glycine max (Soybean) (Glycine hispida) I1LSK5 Setaria italica (Foxtail millet) (Panicum italicum) Si034362m.g K4A658 Solanum lycopersicum (Tomato) (Lycopersicon Solyc09g072610.2 K4CUT7 esculentum) Setaria italica (Foxtail millet) (Panicum italicum) Si016380m.g K3YQ38 Solanum lycopersicum (Tomato) (Lycopersicon R9R6I9 esculentum) Solanum lycopersicum (Tomato) (Lycopersicon Solyc09g090350.2 K4CW61 esculentum) Solanum lycopersicum (Tomato) (Lycopersicon Solyc08g005630.2 K4CI54 esculentum) Solanum lycopersicum (Tomato) (Lycopersicon Solyc08g075240.2 K4CMP1 esculentum) Setaria italica (Foxtail millet) (Panicum italicum) Si034359m.g K4A655 Setaria italica (Foxtail millet) (Panicum italicum) Si034354m.g K4A650 Mimulus guttatus (Spotted monkey flower) (Yellow MIMGU_mgv1a001896mg A0A022PU07 monkey flower) Mimulus guttatus (Spotted monkey flower) (Yellow MIMGU_mgv1a022390mg A0A022RAV4 monkey flower) Mimulus guttatus (Spotted monkey flower) (Yellow MIMGU_mgv1a001868mg A0A022S2E6 monkey flower) Mimulus guttatus (Spotted monkey flower) (Yellow MIMGU_mgv1a001883mg A0A022S275 monkey flower) Mimulus guttatus (Spotted monkey flower) (Yellow MIMGU_mgv1a001761mg A0A022QNF0 monkey flower) Musa acuminata subsp. malaccensis (Wild banana) M0SNA8 (Musa malaccensis) Musa acuminata subsp. malaccensis (Wild banana) M0RUT7 (Musa malaccensis) Musa acuminata subsp. malaccensis (Wild banana) M0RUK3 (Musa malaccensis) Saprolegnia diclina VS20 SDRG_10901 T0RG89 Brachypodium distachyon (Purple false brome) BRADI3G49085 I1IBP7 (Trachynia distachya) Brachypodium distachyon (Purple false brome) BRADI3G28677 I1I4N2 (Trachynia distachya) Brachypodium distachyon (Purple false brome) BRADI3G28657 I1I4N0 (Trachynia distachya) Oryza sativa subsp. indica (Rice) OsI_34012 B8BHG0 Oryza sativa subsp. indica (Rice) OsI_08118 B8AFT8 Oryza sativa subsp. indica (Rice) OsI_34008 A2Z8H1 Oryza sativa subsp. indica (Rice) OsI_34014 B8BHG1 Oryza sativa subsp. japonica (Rice) LOC_Os10g33460 Q7XDG3 Oryza sativa subsp. japonica (Rice) Os10g0474800 Q0IX12 Oryza sativa subsp. japonica (Rice) Os10g0474966 C7J7R1 Oryza sativa subsp. japonica (Rice) OSJNBa0001K12.13 Q8W5N7 Oryza sativa subsp. japonica (Rice) OsJ_31873 B9G683 Oryza sativa subsp. japonica (Rice) OsJ_31875 B9G684 Oryza sativa subsp. japonica (Rice) OSJNBa0001K12.3 Q8W5P5 Arabidopsis lyrata subsp. lyrata (Lyre-leaved rock- ARALYDRAFT_470376 D7KDA3 cress) Arabidopsis lyrata subsp. lyrata (Lyre-leaved rock- ARALYDRAFT_479855 D7L3B6 cress) Arabidopsis lyrata subsp. lyrata (Lyre-leaved rock- ARALYDRAFT_491906 D7MDA9 cress) Arabidopsis lyrata subsp. lyrata (Lyre-leaved rock- ARALYDRAFT_914728 D7MGS9 cress)

In some embodiments, an alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH, Table 4) is used to catalyze the conversion of a fatty alcohol to a fatty aldehyde. A number of ADHs identified from alkanotrophic organisms, Pseudomonas fluorescens NRRL B-1244 (Hou et al. 1983), Pseudomonas butanovora ATCC 43655 (Vangnai and Arp 2001), and Acinetobacter sp. strain M-1 (Tani et al. 2000), have shown to be active on short to medium-chain alkyl alcohols (C₂ to C₁₄). Additionally, commercially available ADHs from Sigma, Horse liver ADH and Baker's yeast ADH have detectable activity for substrates with length C₁₀ and greater. The reported activities for the longer fatty alcohols may be impacted by the difficulties in solubilizing the substrates. For the yeast ADH from Sigma, little to no activity is observed for C₁₂ to C₁₄ aldehydes by (Tani et al. 2000), however, activity for C₁₂ and C₁₆ hydroxy-ω-fatty acids has been observed (Lu et al. 2010). Recently, two ADHs were characterized from Geobacillus thermodenitrificans NG80-2, an organism that degrades C₁₅ to C₃₆ alkanes using the LadA hydroxylase. Activity was detected from methanol to 1-triacontanol (C₃₀) for both ADHs, with 1-octanol being the preferred substrate for ADH2 and ethanol for ADH1 (Liu et al. 2009).

The use of ADHs in whole-cell bioconversions has been mostly focused on the production of chiral alcohols from ketones (Ernst et al. 2005) (Schroer et al. 2007). Using the ADH from Lactobacillus brevis and coupled cofactor regeneration with isopropanol, Schroer et al. reported the production of 797 g of (R)-methyl-3 hydroxybutanoate from methyl acetoacetate, with a space time yield of 29 g/L/h (Schroer et al. 2007). Examples of aliphatic alcohol oxidation in whole-cell transformations have been reported with commercially obtained S. cerevisiae for the conversion of hexanol to hexanal (Presecki et al. 2012) and 2-heptanol to 2-heptanone (Cappaert and Larroche 2004).

TABLE 4 Exemplary alcohol dehydrogenase enzymes. Organism Gene Name Accession No. Bactrocera oleae (Olive fruit fly) (Dacus oleae) ADH Q9NAR7 Cupriavidus necator (Alcaligenes eutrophus) (Ralstonia adh P14940 eutropha) Drosophila adiastola (Fruit fly) (Idiomyia adiastola) Adh Q00669 Drosophila affinidisjuncta (Fruit fly) (Idiomyia Adh P21518 affinidisjuncta) Drosophila ambigua (Fruit fly) Adh P25139 Drosophila borealis (Fruit fly) Adh P48584 Drosophila differens (Fruit fly) Adh P22245 Drosophila equinoxialis (Fruit fly) Adh Q9NG42 Drosophila flavomontana (Fruit fly) Adh P48585 Drosophila guanche (Fruit fly) Adh Q09009 Drosophila hawaiiensis (Fruit fly) Adh P51549 Drosophila heteroneura (Fruit fly) Adh P21898 Drosophila immigrans (Fruit fly) Adh Q07588 Drosophila insularis (Fruit fly) Adh Q9NG40 Drosophila lebanonensis (Fruit fly) (Scaptodrosophila Adh P10807 lebanonensis) Drosophila mauritiana (Fruit fly) Adh P07162 Drosophila madeirensis (Fruit fly) Adh Q09010 Drosophila mimica (Fruit fly) (Idiomyia mimica) Adh Q00671 Drosophila nigra (Fruit fly) (Idiomyia nigra) Adh Q00672 Drosophila orena (Fruit fly) Adh P07159 Drosophila pseudoobscura bogotana (Fruit fly) Adh P84328 Drosophila picticornis (Fruit fly) (Idiomyia picticornis) Adh P23361 Drosophila planitibia (Fruit fly) Adh P23277 Drosophila paulistorum (Fruit fly) Adh Q9U8S9 Drosophila silvestris (Fruit fly) Adh P23278 Drosophila subobscura (Fruit fly) Adh Q03384 Drosophila teissieri (Fruit fly) Adh P28484 Drosophila tsacasi (Fruit fly) Adh P51550 Fragaria ananassa (Strawberry) ADH P17648 Malus domestica (Apple) (Pyrus malus) ADH P48977 Scaptomyza albovittata (Fruit fly) Adh P25988 Scaptomyza crassifemur (Fruit fly) (Drosophila crassifemur) Adh Q00670 Sulfolobus sp. (strain RC3) adh P50381 Zaprionus tuberculatus (Vinegar fly) Adh P51552 Geobacillus stearothermophilus (Bacillus stearothermophilus) adh P42327 Drosophila mayaguana (Fruit fly) Adh, Adh2 P25721 Drosophila melanogaster (Fruit fly) Adh, CG3481 P00334 Drosophila pseudoobscura pseudoobscura (Fruit fly) Adh, GA17214 Q6LCE4 Drosophila simulans (Fruit fly) Adh, GD23968 Q24641 Drosophila yakuba (Fruit fly) Adh, GE19037 P26719 Drosophila ananassae (Fruit fly) Adh, GF14888 Q50L96 Drosophila erecta (Fruit fly) Adh, GG25120 P28483 Drosophila grimshawi (Fruit fly) (Idiomyia grimshawi) Adh, GH13025 P51551 Drosophila willistoni (Fruit fly) Adh, GK18290 Q05114 Drosophila persimilis (Fruit fly) Adh, GL25993 P37473 Drosophila sechellia (Fruit fly) Adh, GM15656 Q9GN94 Cupriavidus necator (strain ATCC 17699/H16/DSM 428/ adh, H16_A0757 Q0KDL6 Stanier 337) (Ralstonia eutropha) Mycobacterium tuberculosis (strain CDC 1551/Oshkosh) adh, MT1581 P9WQC2 Staphylococcus aureus (strain MW2) adh, MW0568 Q8NXU1 Mycobacterium tuberculosis (strain ATCC 25618/H37Rv) adh, Rv1530 P9WQC3 Staphylococcus aureus (strain N315) adh, SA0562 Q7A742 Staphylococcus aureus (strain bovine RF122/ET3-1) adh, SAB0557 Q2YSX0 Sulfolobus acidocaldarius (strain ATCC 33909/DSM 639/ adh, Saci_2057 Q4J781 JCM 8929/NBRC 15157/NCIMB 11770) Staphylococcus aureus (strain COL) adh, SACOL0660 Q5HI63 Staphylococcus aureus (strain NCTC 8325) adh, Q2G0G1 SAOUHSC_00608 Staphylococcus aureus (strain MRSA252) adh, SAR0613 Q6GJ63 Staphylococcus aureus (strain MSSA476) adh, SAS0573 Q6GBM4 Staphylococcus aureus (strain USA300) adh, SAUSA300_0594 Q2FJ31 Staphylococcus aureus (strain Mu50/ATCC 700699) adh, SAV0605 Q99W07 Staphylococcus epidermidis (strain ATCC 12228) adh, SE_0375 Q8CQ56 Staphylococcus epidermidis (strain ATCC 35984/RP62A) adh, SERP0257 Q5HRD6 Sulfolobus solfataricus (strain ATCC 35092/DSM 1617/ adh, SSO2536 P39462 JCM 11322/P2) Sulfolobus tokodaii (strain DSM 16993/JCM 10545/NBRC adh, STK_25770 Q96XE0 100140/7) Anas platyrhynchos (Domestic duck) (Anas boschas) ADH1 P30350 Apteryx australis (Brown kiwi) ADH1 P49645 Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly) (Tephritis capitata) ADH1 P48814 Ceratitis cosyra (Mango fruit fly) (Trypeta cosyra) ADH1 Q70UN9 Gallus gallus (Chicken) ADH1 P23991 Columba livia (Domestic pigeon) ADH1 P86883 Coturnix coturnix japonica (Japanese quail) (Coturnix ADH1 P19631 japonica) Drosophila hydei (Fruit fly) Adh1 P23236 Drosophila montana (Fruit fly) Adh1 P48586 Drosophila mettleri (Fruit fly) Adh1 P22246 Drosophila mulleri (Fruit fly) Adh1 P07161 Drosophila navojoa (Fruit fly) Adh1 P12854 Geomys attwateri (Attwater's pocket gopher) (Geomys ADH1 Q9Z2M2 bursarius attwateri) Geomys bursarius (Plains pocket gopher) ADH1 Q64413 Geomys knoxjonesi (Knox Jones's pocket gopher) ADH1 Q64415 Hordeum vulgare (Barley) ADH1 P05336 Kluyveromyces marxianus (Yeast) (Candida kefyr) ADH1 Q07288 Zea mays (Maize) ADH1 P00333 Mesocricetus auratus (Golden hamster) ADH1 P86885 Pennisetum americanum (Pearl millet) (Pennisetum glaucum) ADH1 P14219 Petunia hybrida (Petunia) ADH1 P25141 Oryctolagus cuniculus (Rabbit) ADH1 Q03505 Solanum tuberosum (Potato) ADH1 P14673 Struthio camelus (Ostrich) ADH1 P80338 Trifolium repens (Creeping white clover) ADH1 P13603 Zea luxurians (Guatemalan teosinte) (Euchlaena luxurians) ADH1 Q07264 Saccharomyces cerevisiae (strain ATCC 204508/S288c) ADH1, ADC1, P00330 (Baker's yeast) YOL086C, O0947 Arabidopsis thaliana (Mouse-ear cress) ADH1, ADH, P06525 At1g77120, F22K20.19 Schizosaccharomyces pombe (strain 972/ATCC 24843) adh1, adh, P00332 (Fission yeast) SPCC13B11.01 Drosophila lacicola (Fruit fly) Adh1, Adh-1 Q27404 Mus musculus (Mouse) Adh1, Adh-1 P00329 Peromyscus maniculatus (North American deer mouse) ADH1, ADH-1 P41680 Rattus norvegicus (Rat) Adh1, Adh-1 P06757 Drosophila virilis (Fruit fly) Adh1, Adh-1, B4M8Y0 GJ18208 Scheffersomyces stipitis (strain ATCC 58785/CBS 6054/ ADH1, ADH2, O00097 NBRC 10063/NRRL Y-11545) (Yeast) (Pichia stipitis) PICST_68558 Aspergillus flavus (strain ATCC 200026/FGSC A1120/ adh1, AFLA_048690 P41747 NRRL 3357/JCM 12722/SRRC 167) Neurospora crassa (strain ATCC 24698/74-OR23-1A/CBS adh-1, B17C10.210, Q9P6C8 708.71/DSM 1257/FGSC 987) NCU01754 Candida albicans (Yeast) ADH1, CAD P43067 Oryza sativa subsp. japonica (Rice) ADH1, DUPR11.3, Q2R8Z5 Os11g0210300, LOC_Os11g10480, OsJ_032001 Drosophila mojavensis (Fruit fly) Adh1, GI17644 P09370 Kluyveromyces lactis (strain ATCC 8585/CBS 2359/DSM ADH1, P20369 70799/NBRC 1267/NRRL Y-1140/WM37) (Yeast) KLLA0F21010g (Candida sphaerica) Oryza sativa subsp. indica (Rice) ADH1, OsI_034290 Q75ZX4 Pongo abelii (Sumatran orangutan) (Pongo pygmaeus abelii) ADH1A Q5RBP7 Homo sapiens (Human) ADH1A, ADH1 P07327 Macaca mulatta (Rhesus macaque) ADH1A, ADH1 P28469 Pan troglodytes (Chimpanzee) ADH1B Q5R1W2 Papio hamadryas (Hamadryas baboon) ADH1B P14139 Homo sapiens (Human) ADH1B, ADH2 P00325 Homo sapiens (Human) ADH1C, ADH3 P00326 Papio hamadryas (Hamadryas baboon) ADH1C, ADH3 O97959 Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly) (Tephritis capitata) ADH2 P48815 Ceratitis cosyra (Mango fruit fly) (Trypeta cosyra) ADH2 Q70UP5 Ceratitis rosa (Natal fruit fly) (Pterandrus rosa) ADH2 Q70UP6 Drosophila arizonae (Fruit fly) Adh2 P27581 Drosophila buzzatii (Fruit fly) Adh2 P25720 Drosophila hydei (Fruit fly) Adh2 P23237 Drosophila montana (Fruit fly) Adh2 P48587 Drosophila mulleri (Fruit fly) Adh2 P07160 Drosophila wheeleri (Fruit fly) Adh2 P24267 Entamoeba histolytica ADH2 Q24803 Hordeum vulgare (Barley) ADH2 P10847 Kluyveromyces marxianus (Yeast) (Candida kefyr) ADH2 Q9P4C2 Zea mays (Maize) ADH2 P04707 Oryza sativa subsp. indica (Rice) ADH2 Q4R1E8 Solanum lycopersicum (Tomato) (Lycopersicon esculentum) ADH2 P28032 Solanum tuberosum (Potato) ADH2 P14674 Scheffersomyces stipitis (strain ATCC 58785/CBS 6054/ ADH2, ADH1, O13309 NBRC 10063/NRRL Y-11545) (Yeast) (Pichia stipitis) PICST_27980 Arabidopsis thaliana (Mouse-ear cress) ADH2, ADHIII, Q96533 FDH1, At5g43940, MRH10.4 Saccharomyces cerevisiae (strain ATCC 204508/S288c) ADH2, ADR2, P00331 (Baker's yeast) YMR303C, YM9952.05C Candida albicans (strain SC5314/ATCC MYA-2876) ADH2, Ca41C10.04, O94038 (Yeast) CaO19.12579, CaO19.5113 Oryza sativa subsp. japonica (Rice) ADH2, DUPR11.1, Q0ITW7 Os11g0210500, LOC_Os11g10510 Drosophila mojavensis (Fruit fly) Adh2, GI17643 P09369 Kluyveromyces lactis (strain ATCC 8585/CBS 2359/DSM ADH2, P49383 70799/NBRC 1267/NRRL Y-1140/WM37) (Yeast) KLLA0F18260g (Candida sphaerica) Oryctolagus cuniculus (Rabbit) ADH2-1 O46649 Oryctolagus cuniculus (Rabbit) ADH2-2 O46650 Hordeum vulgare (Barley) ADH3 P10848 Solanum tuberosum (Potato) ADH3 P14675 Kluyveromyces lactis (strain ATCC 8585/CBS 2359/DSM ADH3, P49384 70799/NBRC 1267/NRRL Y-1140/WM37) (Yeast) KLLA0B09064g (Candida sphaerica) Saccharomyces cerevisiae (strain ATCC 204508/S288c) ADH3, YMR083W, P07246 (Baker's yeast) YM9582.08 Homo sapiens (Human) ADH4 P08319 Mus musculus (Mouse) Adh4 Q9QYY9 Rattus norvegicus (Rat) Adh4 Q64563 Struthio camelus (Ostrich) ADH4 P80468 Kluyveromyces lactis (strain ATCC 8585/CBS 2359/DSM ADH4, P49385 70799/NBRC 1267/NRRL Y-1140/WM37) (Yeast) KLLA0F13530g (Candida sphaerica) Schizosaccharomyces pombe (strain 972/ATCC 24843) adh4, SPAC5H10.06c Q09669 (Fission yeast) Saccharomyces cerevisiae (strain YJM789) (Baker's yeast) ADH4, ZRG5, A6ZTT5 SCY_1818 Saccharomyces cerevisiae (strain ATCC 204508/S288c) ADH4, ZRG5, P10127 (Baker's yeast) YGL256W, NRC465 Saccharomyces pastorianus (Lager yeast) (Saccharomyces ADH5 Q6XQ67 cerevisiae × Saccharomyces eubayanus) Bos taurus (Bovine) ADH5 Q3ZC42 Equus caballus (Horse) ADH5 P19854 Mus musculus (Mouse) Adh5, Adh-2, Adh2 P28474 Rattus norvegicus (Rat) Adh5, Adh-2, Adh2 P12711 Oryctolagus cuniculus (Rabbit) ADH5, ADH3 O19053 Homo sapiens (Human) ADH5, ADHX, FDH P11766 Dictyostelium discoideum (Slime mold) adh5, Q54TC2 DDB_G0281865 Saccharomyces cerevisiae (strain ATCC 204508/S288c) ADH5, YBR145W, P38113 (Baker's yeast) YBR1122 Homo sapiens (Human) ADH6 P28332 Peromyscus maniculatus (North American deer mouse) ADH6 P41681 Pongo abelii (Sumatran orangutan) (Pongo pygmaeus abelii) ADH6 Q5R7Z8 Rattus norvegicus (Rat) Adh6 Q5XI95 Homo sapiens (Human) ADH7 P40394 Rattus norvegicus (Rat) Adh7 P41682 Mus musculus (Mouse) Adh7, Adh-3, Adh3 Q64437 Mycobacterium tuberculosis (strain CDC 1551/Oshkosh) adhA, MT1911 P9WQC0 Rhizobium meliloti (strain 1021) (Ensifer meliloti) adhA, RA0704, O31186 (Sinorhizobium meliloti) SMa1296 Mycobacterium tuberculosis (strain ATCC 25618/H37Rv) adhA, Rv1862 P9WQC1 Zymomonas mobilis subsp. mobilis (strain ATCC 31821/ adhA, ZMO1236 P20368 ZM4/CP4) Mycobacterium bovis (strain ATCC BAA-935/AF2122/97) adhB, Mb0784c Q7U1B9 Mycobacterium tuberculosis (strain CDC 1551/Oshkosh) adhB, MT0786 P9WQC6 Mycobacterium tuberculosis (strain ATCC 25618/H37Rv) adhB, Rv0761c, P9WQC7 MTCY369.06c Zymomonas mobilis subsp. mobilis (strain ATCC 31821/ adhB, ZMO1596 P0DJA2 ZM4/CP4) Zymomonas mobilis subsp. mobilis (strain ATCC 10988/ adhB, Zmob_1541 F8DVL8 DSM 424/LMG 404/NCIMB 8938/NRRL B-806/ZM1) Mycobacterium tuberculosis (strain CDC 1551/Oshkosh) adhD, MT3171 P9WQB8 Mycobacterium tuberculosis (strain ATCC 25618/H37Rv) adhD, Rv3086 P9WQB9 Clostridium acetobutylicum (strain ATCC 824/DSM 792/ adhE, aad, CA_P0162 P33744 JCM 1419/LMG 5710/VKM B-1787) Escherichia coli (strain K12) adhE, ana, b1241, P0A9Q7 JW1228 Escherichia coli O157:H7 adhE, Z2016, P0A9Q8 ECs1741 Rhodobacter sphaeroides (strain ATCC 17023/2.4.1/NCIB adhI, RHOS4_11650, P72324 8253/DSM 158) RSP_2576 Oryza sativa subsp. indica (Rice) ADHIII, OsI_009236 A2XAZ3 Escherichia coli (strain K12) adhP, yddN, b1478, P39451 JW1474 Geobacillus stearothermophilus (Bacillus stearothermophilus) adhT P12311 Emericella nidulans (strain FGSC A4/ATCC 38163/CBS alcA, AN8979 P08843 112.46/NRRL 194/M139) (Aspergillus nidulans) Emericella nidulans (strain FGSC A4/ATCC 38163/CBS alc, AN3741 P54202 112.46/NRRL 194/M139) (Aspergillus nidulans) Emericella nidulans (strain FGSC A4/ATCC 38163/CBS alcC, adh3, AN2286 P07754 112.46/NRRL 194/M139) (Aspergillus nidulans) Arabidopsis thaliana (Mouse-ear cress) At1g22430, F12K8.22 Q9SK86 Arabidopsis thaliana (Mouse-ear cress) At1g22440, F12K8.21 Q9SK87 Arabidopsis thaliana (Mouse-ear cress) At1g32780, F6N18.16 A1L4Y2 Arabidopsis thaliana (Mouse-ear cress) At1g64710, F13O11.3 Q8VZ49 Arabidopsis thaliana (Mouse-ear cress) At4g22110, Q0V7W6 F1N20.210 Arabidopsis thaliana (Mouse-ear cress) At5g24760, Q8LEB2 T4C12_30 Arabidopsis thaliana (Mouse-ear cress) At5g42250, K5J14.5 Q9FH04 Zea mays (Maize) FDH P93629 Drosophila melanogaster (Fruit fly) Fdh, gfd, ODH, P46415 CG6598 Bacillus subtilis (strain 168) gbsB, BSU31050 P71017 Caenorhabditis elegans H24K24.3 Q17335 Oryza sativa subsp. japonica (Rice) Os02g0815500, Q0DWH1 LOC_Os02g57040, OsJ_008550, P0643F09.4 Mycobacterium tuberculosis (strain ATCC 25618/H37Rv) Rv1895 O07737 Caenorhabditis elegans sodh-1, K12G11.3 Q17334 Caenorhabditis elegans sodh-2, K12G11.4 O45687 Pseudomonas sp. terPD P33010 Escherichia coli (strain K12) yiaY, b3589, JW5648 P37686 Moraxella sp. (strain TAE123) P81786 Alligator mississippiensis (American alligator) P80222 Catharanthus roseus (Madagascar periwinkle) (Vinca rosea) P85440 Gadus morhua subsp. callarias (Baltic cod) (Gadus callarias) P26325 Naja naja (Indian cobra) P80512 Pisum sativum (Garden pea) P12886 Pelophylax perezi (Perez's frog) (Rana perezi) P22797 Saara hardwickii (Indian spiny-tailed lizard) (Uromastyx P25405 hardwickii) Saara hardwickii (Indian spiny-tailed lizard) (Uromastyx P25406 hardwickii) Equus caballus (Horse) P00327 Equus caballus (Horse) P00328 Geobacillus stearothermophilus (Bacillus stearothermophilus) P42328 Gadus morhua (Atlantic cod) P81600 Gadus morhua (Atlantic cod) P81601 Myxine glutinosa (Atlantic hagfish) P80360 Octopus vulgaris (Common octopus) P81431 Pisum sativum (Garden pea) P80572 Saara hardwickii (Indian spiny-tailed lizard) (Uromastyx P80467 hardwickii) Scyliorhinus canicula (Small-spotted catshark) (Squalus P86884 canicula) Sparus aurata (Gilthead sea bream) P79896

In some embodiments, an a-dioxygenase is used to catalyze the conversion of a fatty acid to a fatty aldehyde (Hamberg et al. 2005). Alpha-dioxygenases catalyze the conversion of a C_(n) fatty acid to a C_(n−1) aldehyde and may serve as an alternative to both ADH and AOX for fatty aldehyde production if a fatty acid is used as a biotransformation substrate. Due to the chain shortening of the dioxygenase reaction, this route requires a different synthesis pathway compared to the ADH and AOX routes. Biotransformations of E. coli cells expressing a rice α-dioxygenase exhibited conversion of C10, C12, C14 and C16 fatty acids to the corresponding C_(n−1) aldehydes. With the addition of the detergent Triton X 100, 3.7 mM of pentadecanal (0.8 g/L) was obtained after 3 hours from hexadecanoic acid with 74% conversion (Kaehne et al. 2011). Exemplary α-dioxygenases are shown in Table 5.

TABLE 5 Exemplary alpha-dioxygenases. Entry Organism Gene names Q9SGH6 Arabidopsis thaliana (Mouse-ear cress) DOX1 DIOX1 PADOX-1 PIOX At3g01420 T13O15.6 Q9C9U3 Arabidopsis thaliana (Mouse-ear cress) DOX2 DIOX2 At1g73680 F25P22.10 P14550 Homo sapiens (Human) AKR1A1 ALDR1 ALR Q69EZ9 Solanum lycopersicum (Tomato) (Lycopersicon LOC543896 esculentum) Q5WM33 Solanum lycopersicum (Tomato) (Lycopersicon alpha-DOX2 esculentum) Q69F00 Solanum lycopersicum (Tomato) (Lycopersicon esculentum) D7LAG3 Arabidopsis lyrata subsp. lyrata (Lyre-leaved ALPHA-DOX1 ARALYDRAFT_317048 rock-cress) D8LJL3 Ectocarpus siliculosus (Brown alga) DOX Esi_0026_0091 E3U9P5 Nicotiana attenuata (Coyote tobacco) adox2

Synthesis of Polyenes via Metathesis Reactions

In some embodiments, the metathesis reaction partner is a protected alcohol according to Formula IIa:

wherein R^(2a) is an alcohol protecting group,

and the metathesis product is a compound according to Formula IV:

In some embodiments, R¹ is C₂₋₁₈ alkenyl. Such embodiments can provide polyene pheromones as described in more detail below.

In some embodiments, the metathesis reaction partner is a protected alcohol according to Formula IIa:

wherein R^(2a) is an alcohol protecting group,

and the metathesis product is a compound according to Formula IVc:

In some embodiments, the metathesis reaction partner is a protected alcohol according to Formula IIc:

wherein R^(2a) is an alcohol protecting group,

and the metathesis product is a compound according to Formula IVc:

Metathesis of Fatty Acid Esters

Fatty acid alkyl esters (FAAE) can be reduced to either aldehydes or alcohols by the use of well-defined homogenous and heterogeneous methodologies. Therefore, in some cases it can be useful to produce fatty olefin derivatives via Z-selective cross-metathesis of a FAAE with an olefin as shown in Scheme 4.

Products obtained from metathesis of protected fatty acid alkyl esters can be converted to a number of pheromones, as set forth in Table 6.

TABLE 6 Pheromones accessible from fatty acid alkyl ester metathesis products. Exemplary Pheromone Metathesis derived from Pheromone Olefin Reaction Partner Metathesis Product Metathesis Product CAS # propylene oleate (Z)-9-undecenoate (Z)-9-undecenyl acetate 85576-13-2 1-butene oleate (Z)-9-dodecenoate (Z)-9-dodecenal 56219-03-5 1-butene oleate (Z)-9-dodecenoate (Z)-9-dodecenyl acetate 16974-11-1 1-pentene oleate (Z)-9-tridecenoate (Z)-9-tridecenyl acetate 35835-78-0 1-hexene oleate (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate (Z)-9-tetradecenal 53939-27-8 1-hexene oleate (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate (Z)-9-tetradecenyl 16725-53-4 acetate 1-hexene oleate (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate (Z)-9-tetradecenyl 56776-10-4 formate 1-hexene oleate (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate (Z)-9-tetradecenyl 143816-21-1 nitrate 1-heptene oleate (Z)-9-pentadecenoate (Z)-9-pentadecenyl 64437-41-8 acetate 1-octene oleate (Z)-9-hexadecenoate (Z)-9-hexadecenal 56219-04-6 1-octene oleate (Z)-9-hexadecenoate (Z)-9-hexadecenyl 34010-20-3 acetate propylene 9-decenoate (Z)-9-undecenoate (Z)-9-undecenyl acetate 85576-13-2 1-butene 9-decenoate (Z)-9-dodecenoate (Z)-9-dodecenal 56219-03-5 1-butene 9-decenoate (Z)-9-dodecenoate (Z)-9-dodecenyl acetate 16974-11-1 1-pentene 9-decenoate (Z)-9-tridecenoate (Z)-9-tridecenyl acetate 35835-78-0 1-hexene 9-decenoate (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate (Z)-9-tetradecenal 53939-27-8 1-hexene 9-decenoate (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate (Z)-9-tetradecenyl 16725-53-4 acetate 1-hexene 9-decenoate (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate (Z)-9-tetradecenyl 56776-10-4 formate 1-hexene 9-decenoate (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate (Z)-9-tetradecenyl 143816-21-1 nitrate 1-heptene 9-decenoate (Z)-9-pentadecenoate (Z)-9-pentadecenyl 64437-41-8 acetate 1-octene 9-decenoate (Z)-9-hexadecenoate (Z)-9-hexadecenal 56219-04-6 1-octene 9-decenoate (Z)-9-hexadecenoate (Z)-9-hexadecenyl 34010-20-3 acetate propylene 10-undecenoate (Z)-10-dodecenoate (Z)-10-dodecenyl 35148-20-0 acetate 1-butene 10-undecenoate (Z)-10-tridecenoate (Z)-10-tridecenyl acetate 64437-24-7 1-pentene 10-undecenoate (Z)-10-tetradecenoate (Z)-10-tetradecenyl 35153-16-3 acetate 1-hexene 10-undecenoate (Z)-10-pentadecenoate (Z)-10-pentadecenal 60671-80-9 1-hexene 10-undecenoate (Z)-10-pentadecenoate (Z)-10-pentadecenyl 64437-43-0 acetate 1-heptene 10-undecenoate (Z)-10-hexadecenoate (Z)-10-hexadecenyl 56218-71-4 acetate

Accordingly, some embodiments of the invention provide methods wherein the metathesis reaction partner is an ester according to Formula IIb:

wherein R^(2b) is C₁₋₈ alkyl and subscript y is an integer ranging from 0 to 17; and

wherein the metathesis product is a compound according to Formula IIIb:

In some embodiments, the metathesis reaction partner is an ester according to Formula IIb:

wherein R^(2b) is C₁₋₈ alkyl and subscript y is an integer ranging from 0 to 17; and

the metathesis product is a compound according to Formula IIIc:

In some embodiments, the metathesis reaction partner is an ester according to Formula IIc:

wherein R^(2b) is C₁₋₈ alkyl and subscript y is an integer ranging from 0 to 17; and

the metathesis product is a compound according to Formula IIIc:

Metathesis products according to Formula IIIc can be prepared using a number of Z-selective catalysts as described below.

In some embodiments, the methods can be used to prepare products according to Formula IIIb or IIIc wherein y is 0 and z is 4; or y is 1 and z is 3; or y is 3 and z is 1; or y is 4 and z is 0; or y is 0 and z is 5; or y is 1 and z is 4; or y is 2 and z is 3; or y is 3 and z is 2; or y is 4 and z is 1; or y is 5 and z is 0; or y is 0 and z is 6; or y is 1 and z is 5; or y is 2 and z is 4; or y is 4 and z is 2; or y is 5 and z is 1; or y is 6 and z is 0; or y is 0 and z is 7; or y is 1 and z is 6; or y is 2 and z is 5; or y is 3 and z is 4; or y is 4 and z is 3; or y is 5 and z is 2; or y is 6 andzis 1; or y is 7 and z is 0; or y is 0 and z is 8; or y is 1 and z is 7; or y is 2 and z is 6; or y is 3 and z is 5; or y is 5 and z is 3; or y is 6 and z is 2; or y is 7 and z is 1; or y is 8 and z is 0; or y is 0 and z is 9; or y is 1 and z is 8; or y is 2 and z is 7; or y is 3 and z is 6; or y is 4 and z is 5; or y is 5 and z is 4; or y is 6 and z is 3; or y is 7 and z is 2; or y is 8 and z is 1; or y is 9 and z is 0; or y is 0 and z is 10; or y is 1 and z is 9; or y is 2 and z is 8; or y is 3 and z is 7; or y is 4 and z is 6; or y is 6 and z is 4; or y is 7 and z is 3; or y is 8 and z is 2; or y is 9 and z is 1; or y is 10 and z is 0; or y is 0 and z is 11; or y is 1 andzis 10; or y is 2 and z is 9; or y is 3 and z is 8; or y is 4 and z is 7; or y is 5 and z is 6; or y is 6 and z is 5; or y is 7 and z is 4; or y is 8 and z is 3; or y is 9 and z is 2; or y is 10 and z is 1; or y is 11 and z is 0; or y is 0 and z is 12; or y is 1 and z is 11; or y is 2 and z is 10; or y is 3 and z is 9; or y is 4 and z is 8; or y is 5 and z is 7; or y is 7 and z is 5; or y is 8 and z is 4; or y is 9 and z is 3; or y is 10 and z is 2; or y is 11 and z is 1; or y is 12 and z is 0; or y is 0 and z is 13; or y is 1 and z is 12; or y is 2 and z is 11; or y is 3 and z is 10; or y is 4 and z is 9; or y is 5 and z is 8; or y is 6 and z is 7; or y is 7 and z is 6; or y is 8 and z is 5; or y is 9 and z is 4; or y is 10 and z is 3; or y is 11 and z is 2; or y is 12 and z is 1; or y is 13 and z is 0; or y is 0 and z is 14; or y is 1 and z is 13; or y is 2 and z is 12; or y is 3 and z is 11; or y is 4 and z is 10; or y is 5 and z is 9; or y is 6 and z is 8; or y is 8 and z is 6; or y is 9 and z is 5; or y is 10 and z is 4; or y is 11 and z is 3; or y is 12 and z is 2; or y is 13 and z is 1; or y is 14 and z is 0; or y is 0 and z is 15; or y is 1 and z is 14; or y is 2 and z is 13; or y is 3 and z is 12; or y is 4 and z is 11; or y is 5 and z is 10; or y is 6 and z is 9; or y is 7 and z is 8; or y is 8 and z is 7; or y is 9 and z is 6; or y is 10 and z is 5; or y is 11 and z is 4; or y is 12 and z is 3; or y is 13 and z is 2; or y is 14 and z is 1; or y is 15 and z is 0; or y is 0 and z is 16; or y is 1 and z is 15; or y is 2 and z is 14; or y is 3 and z is 13; or y is 4 and z is 12; or y is 5 and z is 11; or y is 6 and z is 10; or y is 7 and z is 9; or y is 9 and z is 7; or y is 10 and z is 6; or y is 11 and z is 5; or y is 12 and z is 4; or y is 13 and z is 3; or y is 14 and z is 2; or y is 15 and z is 1; or y is 16 and z is 0; or y is 1 and z is 16; or y is 2 and z is 15; or y is 3 and z is 14; or y is 4 and z is 13; or y is 5 and z is 12; or y is 6 and z is 11; or y is 7 and z is 10; or y is 8 and z is 9; or y is 9 and z is 8; or y is 10 and z is 7; or y is 11 and z is 6; or y is 12 and z is 5; or y is 13 and z is 4; or y is 14 and z is 3; or y is 15 and z is 2; or y is 16 and z is 1; or y is 17 and z is 0; or y is 0 and z is 17; or y is 1 and z is 17; or y is 2 and z is 16; or y is 3 and z is 15; or y is 4 and z is 14; or y is 5 and z is 13; or y is 6 and z is 12; or y is 7 and z is 11; or y is 8 and z is 10; or y is 10 and z is 8; or y is 11 and z is 7; or y is 12 and z is 6; or y is 13 and z is 5; or y is 14 and z is 4; or y is 15 and z is 3; or y is 16 and z is 2; or y is 17 and z is 1. In some embodiments, both y and z are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, or 17.

Conversion of Fatty Acid Ester Metathesis Products to Fatty Olefin Derivatives

In some embodiments, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative includes reducing the metathesis product of Formula IIIb to form an alkenol according to Formula Vb:

In some embodiments, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative includes reducing the metathesis product of Formula IIIc to form an alkenol according to Formula Vc:

Any suitable conditions for converting the product of Formula IIIb to the alkenol of Formula Vb can be used in conjunction with the method of the invention. Homogenous or heterogenous conditions can be used. Examples of homogenous conditions include, but are not limited to: hydrogenolysis using ligated precious metal catalysts (Tan, et al. Org. Lett. 2015, 17 (3), 454; Spasyuk, D. et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2015, 137, 3743; WO 2014/139030), metal hydride-catalyzed reduction using silane reagents (Mimoun, H. J. Org. Chem. 1999, 64, 2582; U.S. Pat. No. 6,533,960); and reduction using aluminum reagents such as lithium aluminum hydride, sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy)aluminumhydride (also known by the tradename RED-AL), or diisobutyl aluminum hydride (CN 103319704; Chandrasekhar, et al. Tetrahedron Lett. 1998, 39, 909). Unsaturated fatty alcohols can also be prepared via hydrogenolysis with heterogeneous catalysts, such as ZnO or CuO/ZnO supported on chromite, alumina, or other material. Typically, 1-2 molar equivalents of the reducing agent with respect to the fatty acid ester metathesis product will be used. In some embodiments, around 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, or 1.5 molar equivalents of the reducing agent with respect to the fatty acid ester is used to form the corresponding alkenol.

Any suitable solvent can be used for reducing the fatty acid ester metathesis product. Suitable solvents include, but are not limited to, toluene, methylene chloride, ethyl acetate, acetonitrile, tetrahydrofuran, benzene, chloroform, diethyl ether, dimethyl formamide, dimethyl sulfoxide, petroleum ether, and mixtures thereof. The reduction reaction is typically conducted at temperatures ranging from around −78° C. to about 25° C. for a period of time sufficient to form the alkenol. The reaction can be conducted for a period of time ranging from a few minutes to several hours or longer, depending on the particular fatty acid ester and reducing agent used in the reaction. For example, the reduction of a methyl (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate with an aluminum reagent (e.g., sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-aluminumhydride) can be conducted for 1-2 hours at a temperature ranging from around 0° C. to around 20° C.

In some embodiments, the alkenol is the fatty olefin derivative. In some embodiments, the alkenol is a pheromone.

In some embodiments, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative further includes acylating the alkenol of Formula Vb, thereby forming a fatty olefin derivative according to Formula VIb:

wherein R^(2c) is C₁₋₆ acyl. The acylation step can be conducted as described above.

In some embodiments, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative further includes acylating the alkenol of Formula Vc, thereby forming a fatty olefin derivative according to Formula VIc:

wherein R^(2c) is C₁₋₆ acyl. The acylation step can be conducted as described above.

In some embodiments, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative further includes oxidizing the alkenol of Formula Vb, thereby forming a fatty olefin derivative according to Formula VIIb:

In some embodiments, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative further includes oxidizing the alkenol of Formula Vc, thereby forming a fatty olefin derivative according to Formula VIIc:

In some embodiments, the metathesis reaction partner is an ester according to Formula IIb or Formula IIc as described above, and the metathesis product is a compound according to Formula IV:

In some embodiments, the metathesis reaction partner is an ester according to Formula IIb or Formula IIc as described above, and the metathesis product is a compound according to Formula IVc:

In some embodiments, R¹ in Formula IV or Formula IVc is C₂₋₁₈ alkenyl.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a method for synthesizing a fatty olefin derivative, the method comprising:

a) contacting an olefin according to Formula I

with a metathesis reaction partner according to Formula IIb

in the presence of a metathesis catalyst under conditions sufficient to form a metathesis product according to Formula IIIb:

and

b) converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative;

wherein:

each R¹ is independently selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₁₈ alkyl, and C₂₋₁₈ alkenyl;

R^(2b) is C₁₋₈ alkyl;

subscript y is an integer ranging from 0 to 17; and

subscript z is an integer ranging from 0 to 17.

In some embodiments where the metathesis reaction partner according to Formula IIb is employed, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative comprises reducing the metathesis product to form an alkenol according to Formula Vb:

In some embodiments where the metathesis reaction partner according to Formula IIb is employed, the alkenol is the fatty olefin derivative.

In some embodiments where the metathesis reaction partner according to Formula IIb is employed, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative further comprises acylating the alkenol, thereby forming a fatty olefin derivative according to Formula VIb:

wherein R^(2c) is C₁₋₆ acyl.

In some embodiments where the metathesis reaction partner according to Formula IIb is employed, R¹ is H, R^(2b) is methyl, subscript y is 7, and subscript z is 3. In some such embodiments, R¹ is H, R^(2b) is methyl, subscript y is 7, subscript z is 3, and R^(2c) is acetyl.

In some embodiments where the metathesis reaction partner according to Formula IIb is employed, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative further comprises oxidizing the alkenol, thereby forming a fatty olefin derivative according to Formula VIIb:

In some embodiments where the metathesis reaction partner according to Formula IIb is employed, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative further comprises reducing the metathesis product, thereby forming a fatty olefin derivative according to Formula VIIb:

In some embodiments, R¹ is H, R^(2b) is methyl, subscript y is 7, and subscript z is 3 in the fatty olefin derivative according to Formula VIIb.

In some embodiments where the metathesis reaction partner according to Formula IIb is employed, the olefin has a structure according to Formula Ia:

In some embodiments, subscript z is 3 in the olefin according to Formula Ia.

In some embodiments where the metathesis reaction partner according to Formula IIb is employed, the metathesis product comprises a Z olefin. In some embodiments, at least about 90% of the olefin is a Z olefin. In some embodiments, the metathesis catalyst is a Z-selective molybdenum catalyst or a Z-selective tungsten catalyst as described below. In some embodiments, the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 2 as described below. In some embodiments, the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 2a as described below.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a method for synthesizing a fatty olefin derivative as described above wherein the olefin according to Formula I is a linear C₃-C₁₂ alpha olefin, the metathesis reaction partner according to Formula IIb is a Δ⁹-unsaturated fatty acid alkyl ester, the metathesis catalyst is a Z-selective metathesis catalyst, and the metathesis product according to Formula IIIb is a C₁₁-C₂₀ (Z)-9-unsaturated fatty acid alkyl ester. In some such embodiments, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative comprises contacting the C₁₁-C₂₀ (Z)-9-unsaturated fatty acid alkyl ester with a reducing agent under conditions sufficient to form a C₁₁-C₂₀ (Z)-9-fatty alcohol. In some such embodiments, the reducing agent is sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy)aluminum hydride.

In some embodiments, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative further comprises contacting the C₁₁-C₂₀ (Z)-9-fatty alcohol with an acylating agent in the presence of a base under conditions sufficient to form an acetate ester of the C₁₁-C₂₀ (Z)-9-fatty alcohol. In some such embodiments, the acylating agent is acetic anhydride.

In some embodiments, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative further comprises oxidizing the C₁₁-C₂₀ (Z)-9-fatty alcohol to form a C₁₁-C₂₀ (Z)-9-alkenal.

In some embodiments, converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative comprises contacting the C₁₁-C₂₀ (Z)-9-fatty acid alkyl ester with a reducing agent under conditions sufficient to form a C₁₁-C₂₀ (Z)-9-alkenal. In some such embodiments, the reducing agent is amine-modified sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy)aluminumhydride. The amine-modified sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy)aluminumhydride can be generated in situ via reaction of the sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy)aluminumhydride with either a primary amine or secondary amine (as described, for example, by Shin, et al. Bull. Korean Chem. Soc. 2014, 35, 2169, which is incorporated herein by reference). In some such embodiments, the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 2a as described below.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a method for synthesizing a fatty olefin derivative as described above wherein: the fatty acid derivative is (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-yl acetate; the olefin according to Formula I is hex-1-ene, the metathesis reaction partner according to Formula IIb is a Δ⁹-unsaturated fatty acid alkyl ester, the metathesis catalyst is a Z-selective metathesis catalyst, and the metathesis product according to Formula IIIb is an alkyl ester of (Z)-9-tetradec-9-enoate; and wherein converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative comprises: contacting the alkyl ester of (Z)-9-tetradec-9-enoate with a reducing agent under conditions sufficient to form (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-ol, and acylating the (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-ol to form the (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-yl acetate.

In some such embodiments, the metathesis reaction partner according to Formula IIb is methyl 9-decenoate and the metathesis product is methyl (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate. In some such embodiments, the reducing agent is sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy)aluminumhydride. In some such embodiments, acylating the (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-ol comprises contacting the (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-ol with an acylating agent in the presence of a base under conditions sufficient to form (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-yl acetate. In some such embodiments, the acylating agent is acetic anhydride. In some such embodiments, the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 2a as described below.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a method for synthesizing a fatty olefin derivative as described above, wherein the fatty acid derivative is (Z)-tetradec-9-enal, the olefin according to Formula I is hex-1-ene, the metathesis reaction partner according to Formula IIb is a Δ⁹-unsaturated fatty acid alkyl ester,the metathesis catalyst is a Z-selective metathesis catalyst, and the metathesis product according to Formula IIIb is an alkyl ester of (Z)-9-tetradec-9-enoate; and wherein converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative comprises contacting the alkyl ester of (Z)-9-tetradec-9-enoate with a reducing agent under conditions sufficient to form the (Z)-tetradec-9-enal. In some such embodiments, the reducing agent is amine-modified sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy) aluminumhydride. The amine-modified sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy) aluminumhydride can be generated as described above. In some such embodiments, the Δ⁹-unsaturated fatty acid alkyl ester according to Formula IIg is methyl 9-decenoate and the metathesis product is methyl (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate. In some such embodiments, the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 2a as described below.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a method for synthesizing a fatty olefin derivative as described above wherein the fatty acid derivative is (Z)-tetradec-9-enal, the olefin according to Formula I is hex-1-ene, the metathesis reaction partner according to Formula IIb is a Δ⁹-unsaturated fatty acid alkyl ester, the metathesis catalyst is a Z-selective metathesis catalyst, and the metathesis product according to Formula IIIb is an alkyl ester of (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate; and wherein converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative comprises contacting the alkyl ester of (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate with a reducing agent under conditions sufficient to form (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-ol, and oxidizing the (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-ol to form the (Z)-tetradec-9-enal. In some such embodiments, the reducing agent is sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy)aluminumhydride. In some such embodiments, the Δ⁹-unsaturated fatty acid alkyl ester according to Formula IIg is methyl 9-decenoate and the metathesis product is methyl (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate. In some such embodiments, the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 2a as described below.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a method for synthesizing a fatty olefin derivative according to Formula VIb:

the method comprising:

i) reducing an alkyl ester according to Formula IIb

to form an alkenol according to Formula VIII

ii) acylating the alkenol to form an acylated alkenol according to Formula IX

and

iii) contacting the acylated alkenol with an olefin according to Formula I

in the presence of a metathesis catalyst under conditions sufficient to form the fatty olefin derivative; wherein:

R¹ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₁₈ alkyl, and C₂₋₁₈ alkenyl;

R^(2b) is C₁₋₈ alkyl,

R^(2c) is C₁₋₆ acyl,

subscript y is an integer ranging from 0 to 17;

subscript z is an integer ranging from 0 to 17; and

the metathesis catalyst is a tungsten catalyst or a molybdenum catalyst.

In some embodiments, R¹ is H, R^(2b) is methyl, R^(2c) is acetyl, subscript y is 7, and subscript z is 3 in the method for synthesizing a fatty olefin derivative according to Formula VIb. In some embodiments, the metathesis product comprises an E olefin. In some embodiments, the metathesis product comprises a Z-olefin. In some embodiments, the metathesis catalyst is a Z-selective molybdenum catalyst or a Z-selective tungsten catalyst. In some embodiments, the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 2 as described below. In some embodiments, the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 2a as described below.

Metathesis catalysts

The catalysts employed in the present invention generally employ metals which can mediate a particular desired chemical reaction. In general, any transition metal (e.g., having d electrons) can be used to form the catalyst, e.g., a metal selected from one of Groups 3-12 of the periodic table or from the lanthanide series. In some embodiments, the metal is selected from Groups 3-8, or, in some cases, from Groups 4-7. In some embodiments, the metal is selected from Group 6. The term “Group 6” refers to the transition metal group comprising chromium, molybdenum, and tungsten. Additionally, the present invention may also include the formation of heterogeneous catalysts containing forms of these elements (e.g., by immobilizing a metal complex on an insoluble substrate, for example, silica).

The methods of the invention can be assessed in terms of the selectivity of the metathesis reaction—that is, the extent to which the reaction produces a particular olefin isomer, whether a Z olefin (i.e., a cis olefin) or an E olefin (i.e., a trans olefin).

In general, Z-selective catalysts provide metathesis products wherein greater than 15% (w/w) of the olefin is a Z olefin. For example, the metathesis product can contain the Z olefin in an amount ranging from about 20% to about 100%. The metathesis product can contain the Z olefin in an amount ranging from about 25% to about 95%, or from about 30% to about 90%, or from about 35% to about 85%, or from about 40% to about 80%, or from about 45% to about 75%, or from about 50% to about 70%, or from about 55% to about 65%. The metathesis product can contain the Z olefin in an amount ranging from about 15% to about 20%, or from about 20% to about 25%, or from about 25% to about 30%, or from about 30% to about 35%, or from about 35% to about 40%, or from about 40% to about 45%, or from about 45% to about 50%, or from about 50% to about 60%, or from about 60% to about 65%, or from about 65% to about 70%, or from about 70% to about 75%, or from about 75% to about 80%, or from about 80% to about 85%, or from about 85% to about 90%, or from about 90% to about 95%, or from about 95% to about 99%. The metathesis product can contain the Z olefin in an amount of about 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% (w/w).

In general, E-selective catalysts provide metathesis products at least about 85% (w/w) of the olefin is an E olefin. For example, the metathesis product can contain the E olefin in an amount ranging from about 86% to about 100%. The metathesis product can contain the E olefin in an amount ranging from about 86% to about 99%, or from about 88% to about 98%, or from about 90% to about 96%, or from about 92% to about 94%. The metathesis product can contain the E olefin in an amount ranging from about 86% to about 89%, or from about 89% to about 92%, or from about 92% to about 95%, or from about 95% to about 98%. The metathesis product can contain the E olefin in an amount of about 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% (w/w).

In some embodiments, the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 1:

wherein:

M is Mo or W;

R³ is selected from optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted aliphatic, and optionally substituted heteroaliphatic;

each of R⁴ and R⁵ is independently selected from hydrogen, optionally substituted aliphatic, optionally substituted heteroaliphatic, optionally substituted aryl, and optionally substituted heteroaryl;

R⁶ is selected from —O-alkyl, —O-heteroalkyl, —O-aryl, —O-heteroaryl, —N(R^(n))-alkyl, —N(R^(n))-heteroalkyl, —N(R^(n))-aryl, and -N(R^(n))-heteroaryl,

wherein each R^(n) is independently selected from hydrogen, an amino protecting group, and optionally substituted alkyl,

and wherein R⁶ is optionally substituted; and

R⁷ is selected from aryl, heteroaryl, alkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, —O-alkyl, —O-heteroalkyl, —O-aryl, and —O-heteroaryl, each of which is optionally substituted, or

R⁷ is halogen.

In some embodiments, the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 1 and the metathesis product comprises a Z olefin.

In some embodiments, R⁶ is an optionally substituted asymmetric —O-aryl group and R⁷ is an optionally substituted heteroaryl group.

In some cases, the metal complex includes one or more oxygen-containing ligands lacking a plane of symmetry or nitrogen-containing ligands lacking a plane of symmetry (i.e., asymmetric ligands). In some embodiments, such ligands can coordinate the metal atom via an oxygen atom (e.g., via a hydroxyl group), or other atom of the ligand. The oxygen-containing ligand can coordinate the metal atom via one site of the ligand, i.e., the ligand may be a monodentate ligand.

In some embodiments, a ligand can comprise two sites capable of binding the metal center, wherein a first site is bonded to a protecting group, or other group, that may reduce the ability of the first site to coordinate the metal, and the second site coordinates the metal center. For example, the ligand can be a [1,1′-binaphthalene]-2,2′-diol (BINOL) derivative having two hydroxyl groups, wherein one hydroxyl group is bonded to a protecting group (e.g., a silyl protecting group) and another hydroxyl group coordinates the metal center.

In some embodiments, an asymmetric oxygen-containing ligand is of the following structure:

wherein:

R¹³ is an optionally substituted group selected from aryl, heteroaryl, alkyl, or heteroalkyl;

R¹⁴ is hydrogen, —OH, halogen, —OPG, or an optionally substituted group selected from aliphatic, heteroaliphatic, aryl, aryloxy, heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, acyl, and acyloxy;

or, together R¹³ and R¹⁴ are joined to form an optionally substituted partially unsaturated or aryl ring;

R¹⁵ is —OH, —OPG, or an optionally substituted amino group;

R¹⁶ is hydrogen, halogen, an optionally substituted group selected from aliphatic, heteroaliphatic, aryl, heteroaryl, or acyl;

each of R¹⁷, R¹⁸, R¹⁹, and R²⁰ is independently aryl, heteroaryl, aliphatic, heteroaliphatic, or acyl, optionally substituted;

or, together R¹⁷ and R¹⁸ are joined to form an optionally substituted partially unsaturated or aryl ring;

or, together R¹⁹ and R²⁰ are joined to form an optionally substituted partially unsaturated or aryl ring; and ‘each PG is independently a hydroxyl protecting group.

In some embodiments, R³ is an optionally substituted group selected from aryl and aliphatic.

In some embodiments, R³ is selected from

wherein each R⁸ is independently hydrogen or a monovalent substituent.

In some embodiments, R⁶ is an optionally substituted group selected from

In some embodiments, R⁶ is an optionally substituted group selected from

In some embodiments, R⁶ is

which is optionally substituted.

In some embodiments, the metathesis catalyst is selected from

wherein M is Mo or W;

each R⁸ is independently selected from halo and alkyl;

R⁹ is selected from the group of consisting of alkyl, aryl, alkenyl, and heteroaryl;

each R¹⁰ is independently selected from hydrogen, halo, alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl;

each R¹¹ is independently selected from halo, alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl; and

each R ¹² is independently an optionally substituted alkyl.

In some embodiments, the metathesis catalyst is selected from:

In some embodiments, the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 2:

wherein:

M is Mo or W;

R^(3a) is selected from optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted heteroalkyl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, and optionally substituted heterocycloalkyl, and ‘R^(4a) and R^(5a) are independently selected from hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted heteroalkyl, optionally substituted heteroalkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, and optionally substituted heteroaryl;

R^(7a) is selected from optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkoxy, optionally substituted heteroalkyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted aryloxy, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted silylalkyl, and optionally substituted silyloxy; and

R^(6a) is R^(8a)—X—, wherein

X is O or S and R^(8a) is optionally substituted aryl; or

X is O and R^(8a) is SiR^(9a)R^(10a)R¹¹ or CR^(12a)R^(13a)R_(14a), wherein R^(9a), R^(10a), R^(11a), R^(12a), R^(13a), and R^(14a) are independently selected from optionally substituted alkyl and optionally substituted phenyl; or

^(6a) and R^(7a) are linked together and are bonded to M via oxygen.

In some embodiments, the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 2 and the metathesis product comprises a Z olefin.

In some embodiments, the catalyst is a compound of Formula 2 wherein:

R^(7a) is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkoxy, heteroalkyl, aryl, aryloxy, and heteroaryl, each of which is optionally substituted; and

X is O or S and R^(8a) is optionally substituted aryl; or

X is O and R^(8a) is CR^(12a)R^(13a)R^(14a).

In some embodiments, the catalyst is a compound of Formula 2 wherein:

R^(3a) is selected from the group consisting of 2,6-dimethylphenyl; 2,6-diisopropylphenyl; 2,6-dichlorophenyl; and adamant-1-yl;

R^(4a) is selected from the group consisting of —C(CH₃)₂C₆H₅ and —C(CH₃)₃;

R^(5a) is H;

R^(7a) is selected from the group consisting of pyrrol-1-yl; 2,5-dimethyl-pyrrol-1-yl; triphenylsilyloxy; triisopropylsilyloxy; 2-phenyl-1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-prop-2-yloxy; 2-methyl-1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-prop-2-yloxy; 9-phenyl-fluorene-9-yloxy; 2,6-diphenyl-phenoxy; and t-butyloxy; and ‘R^(6a) is R^(8a)—X—, wherein

X═O and

R^(8a) is phenyl which bears two substituents in the ortho positions with respect to O, or which bears at least three substituents, from which two substituents are in the ortho positions with respect to O and one substituent is in the para position with respect to O; or

R^(8a) is selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted 8-(naphthalene-1-yl)-naphthalene-1-yl; optionally substituted 8-phenlynaphthalene-1-yl; optionally substituted quinoline-8-yl; triphenylsilyl; triisopropylsilyl; triphenylmethyl; tri(4-methylphenyl)methyl; 9-phenyl-fluorene-9-yl; 2-phenyl-1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-prop-2-yl; 2-methyl-1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-prop-2-yl; and t-butyl.

In some embodiments, the catalyst is a compound of Formula 2 wherein:

R^(7a) is selected from the group consisting of pyrrol-1-yl; 2,5-dimethyl-pyrrol-1-yl; and

R^(8a) is phenyl which bears two substituents in the ortho positions with respect to O, or which bears at least three substituents, from which two substituents are in the ortho positions with respect to O and one substituent is in the para position with respect to O; or

R^(8a) is selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted 8-(naphthalene-1-yl)-naphthalene-1-yl and optionally substituted 8-phenlynaphthalene-1-yl.

In some embodiments, the catalyst is a compound of Formula 2 wherein R⁴ is selected from 4-bromo-2,6-diphenylphenoxy; 4-fluoro-2,6-diphenylphenoxy; 4-methyl-2,6-diphenylphenoxy; 4-methoxy-2,6-diphenylphenoxy; 4-dimethylamino-2,6-diphenylphenoxy; 2,4,6-triphenylphenoxy; 4-fluoro-2,6-dimesitylphenoxy; 4-bromo-2,6-di-tert-butylphenoxy; 4-methoxy-2,6-di-tert-butylphenoxy; 4-methyl-2,6-di-tert-butylphenoxy; 2,4,6-tri-tert-butylphenoxy; 4-bromo-2, 3,5,6-tetraphenylphenoxy; 4-bromo-2,6-di(4-bromophenyl)-3,5-diphenylphenoxy; 2,6-diphenylphenoxy; 2,3,5,6-tetraphenylphenoxy; 2,6-di(tert-butyl)phenoxy; 2,6-di(2,4,6-triisopropylphenyl)phenoxy; triphenylsilyloxy; triisopropylsilyloxy; triphenylmethyloxy; tri(4-methyphenyl)methyloxy; 2-phenyl-1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-prop-2-yloxy; 2-methyl-1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-prop-2-yloxy; 9-phenyl-fluorene-9-yloxy; t-butyloxy;

wherein TBS is t-butyldimethylsilyl; or

wherein Me=methyl.

In some embodiments, the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 2a:

wherein:

R^(3a) is aryl, heteroaryl, alkyl, or cycloalkyl, each of which is optionally substituted;

R^(7a) is pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, indolyl, pyrazolyl, azaindolyl, or indazolyl, each of which is optionally substituted;

R^(8a) is optionally substituted aryl;

R^(5a) is a hydrogen atom, alkyl, or alkoxy;

R^(4b) is a hydrogen atom, —O—(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —CH₂-O-(C₁₋₆ alkyl), heteroalkoxy, or —N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂; and

R^(4c) and R^(4d) are independently a hydrogen atom, C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ alkoxy, a halogen atom, —NO₂, an amide, or a sulfonamide.

In some embodiments, the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 2a and the metathesis product comprises a Z olefin.

In some embodiments, R^(3a) in the metathesis catalyst according to Formula 2a is phenyl, 2,6-dichlorophenyl, 2,6-dimethylphenyl, 2,6-diisopropylphenyl, 2-trifluoromethyl-phenyl, pentafluorophenyl, tert-butyl, or 1-adamantyl.

In some embodiments, R^(8a) is

In some embodiments, R^(4b) is methoxy, R^(4c) is hydrogen, and R^(4d) is hydrogen.

In some embodiments, the metathesis catalyst is selected from the group consisting of:

In some embodiments, the metathesis catalyst is

In some embodiments, the metathesis catalyst is

In some embodiments, the metathesis catalyst is selected from:

wherein “Me” is methyl, “Ph” is phenyl, “i-Pr” is isopropyl, “Mes” is mesityl (i.e., 2,4,6-trimethylphenyl), and “TBS” is tert-butyldimethylsilyl.

In some embodiments, the metathesis catalyst is

In some embodiments, the catalyst is a compound of Formula 3:

wherein:

each of R³¹ and R³² is independently R, —OR, —SR, —N(R)₂, —OC(O)R, —SOR, —SO₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)N(R)₂, —NRC(O)R, or —NRSO₂R;

each of R³³ and R³⁴ is independently halogen, R, —N(R)₂, —NRC(O)R, —NRC(O)OR, —NRC(O)N(R)₂, —NRSO₂R, —NRSO₂N(R)₂, —NROR, NR₃, —OR, a phosphorus-containing ligand, or an optionally substituted group selected from:

-   -   a 5-6 membered monocyclic heteroaryl ring having at least one         nitrogen and 0-3 additional heteroatoms independently selected         from nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur,     -   a 4-7 membered saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic         ring having at least one nitrogen and 0-2 additional heteroatoms         independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur,     -   a 7-10 membered bicyclic saturated or partially unsaturated         heterocyclic ring having at least one nitrogen and 0-4         additional heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen,         oxygen, or sulfur, and     -   an 8-10 membered bicyclic heteroaryl ring having at least one         nitrogen and 0-4 additional heteroatoms independently selected         from nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur;     -   each R is independently hydrogen or an optionally substituted         group selected from:     -   phenyl,     -   ferrocene,     -   C₁₋₂₀ aliphatic,     -   C₁₋₂₀ heteroaliphatic having 1-3 heteroatoms independently         selected from nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur,     -   a 3-7 membered saturated or partially unsaturated carbocyclic         ring,     -   an 8-10 membered bicyclic saturated, partially unsaturated or         aryl ring,     -   a 5-6 membered monocyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-4 heteroatoms         independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur,     -   a 4-7 membered saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic         ring having 1-3 heteroatoms independently selected from         nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur,     -   a 7-10 membered bicyclic saturated or partially unsaturated         heterocyclic ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected         from nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur; and     -   an 8-10 membered bicyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-5 heteroatoms         independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur;

or two or three R groups on the same nitrogen atom are taken together with the nitrogen to form an optionally substituted 3-12 membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl ring having 0-5 additional heteroatoms not including the same nitrogen atom independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur;

or two R groups on the same oxygen atom are taken together with the oxygen to form an optionally substituted 3-12 membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl ring having 0-5 additional heteroatoms not including the same oxygen atom independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur;

n is 0, 1, or 2;

each R³⁵ is independently a monodentate ligand, or two R³⁵ are taken together with their intervening atoms to form an optionally substituted bidentate group; and

two or more of R³¹, R³², R³³, R³⁴ and R³⁵ may be taken together with their intervening atoms to form an optionally substituted polydentate ligand.

In some embodiments, the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 3 and the metathesis product comprises a Z olefin.

In some embodiments, the catalyst is selected from:

W(O)(CH-t-Bu)(Ph₂Pyr)(OHMT); W(O)(CH-t-Bu)(Ph₂Pyr)(OHIPT); W(O)(CH-t-Bu) [N(C₆F₅)₂](OHMT)(PPhMe₂); W(O)(CH-t-Bu)(PMe₃)₂Cl₂; W(O)(CH-t-Bu)(O-2,6-Ph₂C₆H₃)₂(PMe₃); W(O)(CH-t-Bu)(Cl)(OHIPT); W(O)(CH-t-Bu)(PMe₂Ph)₂Cl₂; W(O)(CHCMe₂Ph)Cl₂(PMe₂Ph)₂; W[OB(C₆F₅)₃](CH-t-Bu)(Me₂Pyr)(OHMT); W(O)(CH-t-Bu)[N-(C₆F₅)₂](OHMT); W(O)(CH-t-Bu)(OHMT)₂; W(O)(CH-t-Bu)(OHIPT)₂; W(O)(CH-t-Bu)(Me₂Pyr)(DFTO)(PPhMe₂); W(O)(CH-t-Bu)(Me₂Pyr)(DFTO); W(O)(CHCMe₂Ph) (Me₂Pyr)(DFTO)(PPhMe₂); W(O)(CHCMe₂Ph)(Me₂Pyr)(DFTO); W(O)(CH-t-Bu)[N-(C₆F₅)₂](DFTO); and W(O)(CH-t-Bu)(DFTO)₂; wherein OHMT is O-2,6-dimesitylphenoxide; OHIPT is O-2,6-(2,4,6-triisopropylphenyl)₂C₆H₃; DFTO is 2,6-pentafluorophenylphenoxide; Ph₂Pyr is 2,5-diphenylpyrrol-1-yl; and Me₂Pyr is 2,5-dimethylpyrrol-1-yl.

Other metathesis catalysts can be used in the methods of the invention. In general, any metathesis catalyst stable under the reaction conditions and nonreactive with the functional groups present on the reactant shown in Schemes 3 through 8 may be used with the present invention. Such catalysts are, for example, those described by Grubbs (Grubbs, R. H., “Synthesis of large and small molecules using olefin metathesis catalysts.” PMSE Prepr., 2012), herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. Depending on the desired isomer of the olefin, a cis-selective metathesis catalyst may be used, for example one of those described by Shahane et al. (Shahane, S., et al. ChemCatChem, 2013. 5(12): p. 3436-3459), herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. Specific catalysts 1-5 exhibiting cis-selectivity are shown below (Scheme 5) and have been described previously (Khan, R. K., et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2013. 135(28): p. 10258-61; Hartung, J. et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2013. 135(28): p. 10183-5; Rosebrugh, L. E., et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2013. 135(4): p. 1276-9; Marx, V. M., et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2013. 135(1): p. 94-7; Herbert, M. B., et al. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl., 2013. 52(1): p. 310-4; Keitz, B. K., et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2012. 134(4): p. 2040-3; Keitz, B. K., et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2012. 134(1): p. 693-9; Endo, K. et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2011. 133(22): p. 8525-7).

Additional Z-selective catalysts are described in (Cannon and Grubbs 2013; Bronner et al. 2014; Hartung et al. 2014; Pribisko et al. 2014; Quigley and Grubbs 2014) and are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety. Such metathesis catalysts include, but are not limited to, neutral ruthenium or osmium metal carbene complexes that possess metal centers that are formally in the +2 oxidation state, have an electron count of 16, are penta-coordinated, and are of the general formula LL′AA′M═CRbRc or LL′AA′M═(C═)nCRbRc (Pederson and Grubbs 2002); wherein

-   -   M is ruthenium or osmium;     -   L and L′ are each independently any neutral electron donor         ligand and preferably selected from phosphine, sulfonated         phosphine, phosphite, phosphinite, phosphonite, arsine,         stibnite, ether, amine, amide, imine, sulfoxide, carboxyl,         nitrosyl, pyridine, thioether, or heterocyclic carbenes; and     -   A and A′ are anionic ligands independently selected from         halogen, hydrogen, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, aryl, C₁-C₂₀ alkoxide,         aryloxide, C₂-C₂₀ alkoxycarbonyl, arylcarboxylate, C₁-C₂₀         carboxylate, arylsulfonyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkylsulfonyl, C₁-C₂₀         alkylsulfinyl; each ligand optionally being substituted with         C₁-C₅ alkyl, halogen, C₁-C₅ alkoxy; or with a phenyl group that         is optionally substituted with halogen, C₁-C₅ alkyl, or C₁-C₅         alkoxy; and A and A′ together may optionally comprise a         bidentate ligand; and     -   R_(b) and R_(c) are independently selected from hydrogen, C₁-C₂₀         alkyl, aryl, C₁-C₂₀ carboxylate, C₁-C₂₀ alkoxy, aryloxy, C₁-C₂₀         alkoxycarbonyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkylthio, C₁-C₂₀ alkylsulfonyl and         C₁-C₂₀ alkylsulfinyl, each of R_(b) and R_(c) optionally         substituted with C₁-C₅ alkyl, halogen, C₁-C₅ alkoxy or with a         phenyl group that is optionally substituted with halogen, C₁-C₅         alkyl, or C₁-C₅ alkoxy.

Other metathesis catalysts such as “well defined catalysts” can also be used. Such catalysts include, but are not limited to, Schrock's molybdenum metathesis catalyst, 2,6-diisopropylphenylimido neophylidenemolybdenum (VI) bis(hexafluoro-t-butoxide), described by Grubbs et al. (Tetrahedron 1998, 54: 4413-4450) and Basset's tungsten metathesis catalyst described by Couturier, J. L. et al. (Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 1992, 31: 628).

Catalysts useful in the methods of the invention also include those described by Peryshkov, et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2011, 133: 20754-20757; Wang, et al. Angewandte Chemie, 2013, 52: 1939-1943; Yu, et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2012, 134: 2788-2799; Halford. Chem. Eng. News, 2011, 89 (45): 11; Yu, et al. Nature, 2011, 479: 88-93; Lee. Nature, 2011, 471: 452-453; Meek, et al. Nature, 2011: 471, 461-466; Flook, et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2011, 133: 1784-1786; Zhao, et al. Org Lett., 2011, 13(4): 784-787; Ondi, et al. “High activity, stabilized formulations, efficient synthesis and industrial use of Mo- and W-based metathesis catalysts” XiMo Technology Updates, 2015: http://www.ximo-inc.com/files/ximo/uploads/download/Summary _3.11.15.pdf; Schrock, et al.Macromolecules, 2010: 43, 7515-7522; Peryshkov, et al. Organometallics 2013: 32, 5256-5259; Gerber, et al. Organometallics 2013: 32, 5573-5580; Marinescu, et al. Organometallics 2012: 31, 6336-6343; Wang, et al. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2013: 52, 1939-1943; Wang, et al. Chem. Eur. 1 2013: 19, 2726-2740; Townsend et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2012: 134, 11334-11337; and Johns et al. Org. Lett. 2016: 18, 772-775.

Catalysts useful in the methods of the invention also include those described in International Pub. No. WO 2014/155185; International Pub. No. WO 2014/172534; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2014/0330018; International Pub. No. WO 2015/003815; and International Pub. No. WO 2015/003814.

Catalysts useful in the methods of the invention also include those described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,231,947; U.S. Pat. No. 4,245,131; U.S. Pat. No. 4,427,595; U.S. Pat. No. 4,681,956; U.S. Pat. No. 4,727,215; International Pub. No. WO 1991/009825; U.S. Pat. No. 5,0877,10; U.S. Pat. No. 5,142,073; U.S. Pat. No. 5,146,033; International Pub. No. WO 1992/019631; U.S. Pat. No. 6,121,473; U.S. Pat. No. 6,346,652; U.S. Pat. No. 8,987,531; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2008/0119678; International Pub. No. WO 2008/066754; International Pub. No. WO 2009/094201; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2011/0015430; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2011/0065915; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2011/0077421; International Pub. No. WO 2011/040963; International Pub. No. WO 2011/097642; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2011/0237815; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2012/0302710; International Pub. No. WO 2012/167171; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2012/0323000; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2013/0116434; International Pub. No. WO 2013/070725; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2013/0274482; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2013/0281706; International Pub. No. WO 2014/139679; International Pub. No. WO 2014/169014; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2014/0330018; and U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2014/0378637.

Catalysts useful in the methods of the invention also include those described in International Pub. No. WO 2007/075427; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2007/0282148; International Pub. No. WO 2009/126831; International Pub. No. WO 2011/069134; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2012/0123133; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2013/0261312; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2013/0296511; International Pub. No. WO 2014/134333; and U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2015/0018557.

Catalysts useful in the methods of the invention also include those set forth in the following table:

Structure Name

dichloro[1,3-bis(2,6-isopropylphenyl)-2- imidazolidinylidene](benzylidene)(tricyclohexylphosphine)ruthenium(II)

dichloro[1,3-bis(2,6-isopropylphenyl)-2-imidazolidinylidene](2- isopropoxyphenylmethylene)ruthenium(II)

dichloro[1,3-Bis(2-methylphenyl)-2- imidazolidinylidene](benzylidene)(tricyclohexylphosphine)ruthenium(II)

dichloro[1,3-bis(2-methylphenyl)-2-imidazolidinylidene](2- isopropoxyphenylmethylene)ruthenium(II)

dichloro[1,3-bis(2,4,6-trimethylphenyl)-2-imidazolidinylidene](benzylidene)bis(3- bromopyridine)ruthenium(II)

dichloro[1,3-bis(2,4,6-trimethylphenyl)-2-imidazolidinylidene](3-methyl-2- butenylidene) (tricyclohexylphosphine)ruthenium(II)

dichloro[1,3-bis(2,4,6-trimethylphenyl)-2-imidazolidinylidene][3-(2- pyridinyl)propylidene]ruthenium(II)

dichloro[1,3-bis(2,4,6-trimethylphenyl)-2- imidazolidinylidene][(tricyclohexylphosphoranyl)methylidene]ruthenium(II) tetrafluoroborate

dichloro(3-methyl-2-butenylidene)bis(tricyclohexylphosphine)ruthenium(II)

dichloro(3-methyl-2-butenylidene)bis(tricyclopentylphosphine)ruthenium(II)

dichloro(tricyclohexylphosphine)[(tricyclohexylphosphoranyl)methylidene]ruthenium(II) tetrafluoroborate

bis(tricyclohexylphosphine) benzylidine ruthenium(IV) dichloride

[1,3-bis-(2,4,6-trimethylphenyl)-2- imidazolidinylidene]dichloro(phenylmethylene)(tricyclohexylphosphine)ruthenium

(1,3-bis-(2,4,6-trimethylphenyl)-2-imidazolidinylidene)dichloro(o- isopropoxyphenylmethylene)ruthenium

dichloro(o-isopropoxyphenylmethylene)(tricyclohexylphosphine)ruthenium(II)

[2-(1-methylethoxy-O)phenylmethyl-C](nitrato-O,O′){rel-(2R,5R,7R)-adamantane-2,1- diyl[3-(2,4,6-trimethylphenyl)-1-imidazolidinyl-2-ylidene]}ruthenium

In some embodiments, the metathesis product comprises an E olefin, and the metathesis catalyst is selected from the group consisting of:

In some embodiments, the metathesis product comprises an E olefin, and the metathesis catalyst is selected from the group consisting of:

In some embodiments, the metathesis product comprises an E olefin, and the metathesis catalyst is selected from the group consisting of:

Catalysts useful in the methods of the invention also include those described in U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2008/0009598; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2008/0207911; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2008/0275247; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2011/0040099; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2011/0282068; and U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2015/0038723.

Catalysts useful in the methods of the invention include those described in International Pub. No. WO 2007/140954; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2008/0221345; International Pub. No. WO 2010/037550; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2010/0087644; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2010/0113795; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2010/0174068; International Pub. No. WO 2011/091980; International Pub. No. WO 2012/168183; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2013/0079515; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2013/0144060; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2013/0211096; International Pub. No. WO 2013/135776; International Pub. No. WO 2014/001291; International Pub. No. WO 2014/067767; U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2014/0171607; and U.S. Pat. Appl. Pub. No. 2015/0045558.

Metathesis Reaction Conditions

The catalyst is typically provided in the reaction mixture in a sub-stoichiometric amount (e.g., catalytic amount). In certain embodiments, that amount is in the range of about 0.001 to about 50 mol % with respect to the limiting reagent of the chemical reaction, depending upon which reagent is in stoichiometric excess. In some embodiments, the catalyst is present in less than or equal to about 40 mol % relative to the limiting reagent. In some embodiments, the catalyst is present in less than or equal to about 30 mol % relative to the limiting reagent. In some embodiments, the catalyst is present in less than about 20 mol %, less than about 10 mol %, less than about 5 mol %, less than about 2.5 mol %, less than about 1 mol %, less than about 0.5 mol %, less than about 0.1 mol %, less than about 0.015 mol %, less than about 0.01 mol %, less than about 0.0015 mol %, or less, relative to the limiting reagent. In some embodiments, the catalyst is present in the range of about 2.5 mol % to about 5 mol %, relative to the limiting reagent. In some embodiments, the reaction mixture contains about 0.5 mol % catalyst. In the case where the molecular formula of the catalyst complex includes more than one metal, the amount of the catalyst complex used in the reaction may be adjusted accordingly.

In some cases, the methods described herein can be performed in the absence of solvent (e.g., neat). In some cases, the methods can include the use of one or more solvents. Examples of solvents that may be suitable for use in the invention include, but are not limited to, benzene, p-cresol, toluene, xylene, diethyl ether, glycol, diethyl ether, petroleum ether, hexane, cyclohexane, pentane, methylene chloride, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, dioxane, tetrahydrofuran (THF), dimethyl sulfoxide, dimethylformamide, hexamethyl-phosphoric triamide, ethyl acetate, pyridine, triethylamine, picoline, and the like, as well as mixtures thereof. In some embodiments, the solvent is selected from benzene, toluene, pentane, methylene chloride, and THF. In certain embodiments, the solvent is benzene.

In some embodiments, the method is performed under reduced pressure. This may be advantageous in cases where a volatile byproduct, such as ethylene, may be produced during the course of the metathesis reaction. For example, removal of the ethylene byproduct from the reaction vessel may advantageously shift the equilibrium of the metathesis reaction towards formation of the desired product. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about less than 760 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about less than 700 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about less than 650 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about less than 600 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about less than 550 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about less than 500 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about less than 450 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about less than 400 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about less than 350 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about less than 300 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about less than 250 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about less than 200 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about less than 150 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about less than 100 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about less than 90 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about less than 80 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about less than 70 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about less than 60 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about less than 50 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about less than 40 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about less than 30 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about less than 20 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about 20 torr.

In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about 19 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about 18 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about 17 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about 16 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about 15 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about 14 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about 13 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about 12 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about 11 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about 10 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about 10 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about 9 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about 8 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about 7 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about 6 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about 5 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about 4 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about 3 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about 2 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of about 1 torr. In some embodiments, the method is performed at a pressure of less than about 1 torr.

In some embodiments, the two metathesis reactants are present in equimolar amounts. In some embodiments, the two metathesis reactants are not present in equimolar amounts. In certain embodiments, the two reactants are present in a molar ratio of about 20:1, 19:1, 18:1, 17:1, 16:1, 15:1, 14:1, 13:1, 12:1, 11:1, 10:1, 9:1, 8:1, 7:1, 6:1, 5:1, 4:1, 3:1, 2:1, 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 1:4, 1:5, 1:6, 1:7, 1:8, 1:9, 1:10, 1:11, 1:12, 1:13, 1:14, 1:15, 1:16, 1:17, 1:18, 1:19, or 1:20. In certain embodiments, the two reactants are present in a molar ratio of about 10:1. In certain embodiments, the two reactants are present in a molar ratio of about 7:1. In certain embodiments, the two reactants are present in a molar ratio of about 5:1. In certain embodiments, the two reactants are present in a molar ratio of about 2:1. In certain embodiments, the two reactants are present in a molar ratio of about 1:10. In certain embodiments, the two reactants are present in a molar ratio of about 1:7. In certain embodiments, the two reactants are present in a molar ratio of about 1:5. In certain embodiments, the two reactants are present in a molar ratio of 1:2.

In some embodiments, one molar equivalent of the olefin is contacted with one molar equivalent of the metathesis reaction partner. In some embodiments, about 1.5, 2, 2.5, or 3 molar equivalents of the olefin is contacted with one molar equivalent of the metathesis reaction partner. In some embodiments, about 1.5 molar equivalents of the olefin is contacted with one molar equivalent of the metathesis reaction partner.

In general, the reactions with many of the metathesis catalysts disclosed herein provide yields better than 15%, e.g., better than 50%, better than 75%, or better than 90%. In addition, the reactants and products are chosen to provide at least a 5° C. difference, e.g., a greater than 20° C. difference, or a greater than 40° C. difference in boiling points. Additionally, the use of metathesis catalysts allows for much faster product formation than byproduct, and it can be desirable to run these reactions as quickly as practical. In particular, the reactions are performed in less than about 24 hours, e.g., less than 12 hours, or less than 8 hours, or less than 4 hours. Advantageously, the methods of the invention provide metathesis products on a scale ranging from a few milligrams to hundreds of kilograms or more. For example, the methods can be conducted using around 1-10 grams of the olefin according to Formula I, or around 10-100 grams of the olefin according to Formula I, or around 100-500 grams of the olefin according to Formula I, or around 500-1000 grams of the olefin according to Formula I. The methods can be conducted using at least 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, or 1,000 kilograms of starting material. The metathesis reactions can be conducted using a metathesis reactor as described, for example, in WO 2011/046872, which reactor can be operated in conjuction with one or more downstream separation units for separating and/or recycling particular product or byproduct streams (e.g., an olefin stream, a C₂-C₃ compound stream, or a C₃-C₅ compound stream). The metathesis reactor and separation unit(s) can be operated in conjunction with one or more adsorbent beds to facilitate the separation of the metathesized products from the catalyst, as well as washing and drying units for purification of desired products. The metathesis, reduction, and acylation reactions can be conducted to provide products on the scale of metric tons.

One of skill in the art will appreciate that the time, temperature and solvent can depend on each other, and that changing one can require changing the others to prepare the metathesis products in the methods of the invention. The metathesis steps can proceed at a variety of temperatures and times. In general, reactions in the methods of the invention are conducted using reaction times of several minutes to several days. For example, reaction times of from about 12 hours to about 7 days can be used. In some embodiments, reaction times of 1-5 days can be used. In some embodiments, reaction times of from about 10 minutes to about 10 hours can be used. In general, reactions in the methods of the invention are conducted at a temperature of from about 0° C. to about 200° C. For example, reactions can be conducted at 15-100° C. In some embodiments, reaction can be conducted at 20-80° C. In some embodiments, reactions can be conducted at 100-150° C.

The olefins, fatty alcohols, fatty acid esters, and other materials used in the methods of the invention can be obtained from any suitable source. In some embodiments, the metathesis reaction partners used in the methods of the invention are obtained from a natural oil and/or a derivative thereof. Representative examples of natural oils for use in accordance with the present teachings include but are not limited to vegetable oils, algal oils, animal fats, tall oils (e.g., by-products of wood pulp manufacture), derivatives of these oils, and the like, and combinations thereof. Representative examples of vegetable oils for use in accordance with the present teachings include but are not limited to canola oil, rapeseed oil, coconut oil, corn oil, cottonseed oil, olive oil, palm oil, peanut oil, safflower oil, sesame oil, soybean oil, sunflower oil, high oleic sunflower oil, linseed oil, palm kernel oil, tung oil, jatropha oil, jojoba oil, mustard oil, pennycress oil, camelina oil, hemp oil, castor oil, and the like, and combinations thereof. Representative examples of animal fats for use in accordance with the present teachings include but are not limited to lard, tallow, poultry fat, yellow grease, brown grease, fish oil, and the like, and combinations thereof. The natural oil can be refined, bleached, and/or deodorized.

Representative examples of natural oil derivatives for use in accordance with the method of the invention include, but are not limited to, gums, phospholipids, soapstock, acidulated soapstock, distillate or distillate sludge, fatty acids, fatty acid esters (e.g., non-limiting examples such as 2-ethylhexyl ester, etc.), hydroxy-substituted variations thereof, and the like, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the natural oil derivative comprises an ester. In some embodiments, the derivative is selected from the group consisting of a monoacylglyceride (MAG), a diacylglyceride (DAG), a triacylglyceride (TAG), and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the natural oil derivative comprises a fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) derived from the glyceride of the natural oil.

In some embodiments, a feedstock includes canola or soybean oil, e.g., refined, bleached, and/or deodorized soybean oil (i.e., RBD soybean oil). Soybean oil typically contains about 95% weight or greater (e.g., 99% weight or greater) triglycerides of fatty acids. Major fatty acids in the polyol esters of soybean oil include saturated fatty acids, including palmitic acid (hexadecanoic acid) and stearic acid (octadecanoic acid), and unsaturated fatty acids, including oleic acid (9-octadecenoic acid), linoleic acid (9, 12-octadecadienoic acid), and linolenic acid (9, 12, 15-octadecatrienoic acid).

In some embodiments, materials to be reacted in a metathesis reaction—including those derived from natural oils—will containg one or more contaminants with the potential to adversely affect the performance of a metathesis catalyst. Such contaminants can be referred to as “catalyst poisons” or “catalyst poisoning contaminants.” The contaminant levels can be reduced according to the methods described herein. In some embodiments, the material comprises a plurality of contaminants and the method comprises reducing levels of two or more of the contaminants. In some embodiments, the material comprises a plurality of contaminants and the method comprises reducing levels of three or more of the contaminants. In some embodiments, the material comprises a plurality of contaminants and the method comprises reducing levels of four or more of the contaminants. In some embodiments, the material comprises a plurality of contaminants and the method comprises reducing levels of five or more of the contaminants.

Representative contaminants include but are not limited to water, peroxides, peroxide decomposition products, hydroperoxides, protic materials, polar materials, Lewis basic catalyst poisons, and the like, and combinations thereof. It is to be understood that some contaminants may properly be classified in multiple categories (e.g., an alcohol can be considered both a protic material and a polar material). It is to be further understood that different catalysts may have different susceptibilities to a particular contaminant, and that a contaminant that adversely affects the performance of one catalyst (e.g., a ruthenium-based catalyst) may or may not affect (to a similar extent or to any extent whatsoever) a different catalyst (e.g., a molybdenum-based catalyst).

Representative protic materials that may be found as contaminants in a substrate that is to be reacted in a metathesis reaction include but are not limited to materials having a hydrogen atom bonded to oxygen (e.g., carboxylic acids, alcohols, and the like) and/or a hydrogen atom bonded to nitrogen (e.g., primary amines, secondary amines, and the like). In some embodiments, particularly though not exclusively in natural oil substrates, a protic material contaminant may comprise a carboxylic acid functional group, a hydroxyl functional group, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the protic material is selected from the group consisting of free fatty acids, hydroxyl-containing materials, MAGs, DAGs, and the like, and combinations thereof.

Representative polar materials that may be found as contaminants in a substrate that is to be reacted in a metathesis reaction include but are not limited to heteroatom-containing materials such as oxygenates. In some embodiments, the polar material is selected from the group consisting of alcohols, aldehydes, ethers, and the like, and combinations thereof.

Representative Lewis basic catalyst poisons that may be found as contaminants in a substrate that is to be reacted in a metathesis reaction include but are not limited to heteroatom-containing materials. In some embodiments, the Lewis basic catalyst poisons are selected from the group consisting of N-containing materials, P-containing materials, S-containing materials, and the like, and combinations thereof.

Reaction materials containing contaminants can be treated with one or more conditioning agents that mitigate potentially adverse effects of one or more of the contaminants. Conditioning agents that can be used in the methods of the invention (individually, or in combination sequentially or simultaneously) include heat, molecular sieves, alumina (aluminum oxide), silica gel, montmorillonite clay, fuller's earth, bleaching clay, diatomaceous earth, zeolites, kaolin, activated metals (e.g., Cu, Mg, and the like), acid anhydrides (e.g., acetic anhydride and the like), activated carbon (i.e., activated charcoal), soda ash, metal hydrides (e.g., alkaline earth metal hydrides such as CaH₂ and the like), metal sulfates (e.g., alkaline earth metal sulfates such as calcium sulfate, magnesium sulfate, and the like; alkali metal sulfates such as potassium sulfate, sodium sulfate, and the like; and other metal sulfates such as aluminum sulfate, potassium magnesium sulfate, and the like), metal halides (e.g., alkali earth metal halides such as potassium chloride and the like), metal carbonates (e.g., calcium carbonate, sodium carbonate, and the like), metal silicates (e.g., magnesium silicate and the like), phosphorous pentoxide, metal aluminum hydrides (e.g., alkali metal aluminum hydrides such as LiAlH₄, NaAlH₄, and the like), alkyl aluminum hydrides (e.g., DIBALH), metal borohydrides (e.g., alkali metal borohydrides such as LiBH₄, NaBH₄, and the like), organometallic reagents (e.g., Grignard reagents; organolithium reagents such as n-butyl lithium, t-butyl lithium, sec-butyl lithium; trialkyl aluminums such as triethyl aluminum, tributyl aluminum, triisobutyl aluminum, triisopropyl aluminum, trioctyl aluminum, and the like, metal amides (e.g., lithium diisopropyl amide, metal bis(trimethylsilyl)amides such as KHMDS, and the like), palladium on carbon (Pd/C) catalysts, and combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the conditioning agent is a metal alkyl compound. In some embodiments, the metal, M, can be lithium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, zinc, cadmium, aluminum, or gallium. Examples of suitable alkyl radicals, R, include, but are not limited to, methyl, ethyl, butyl, hexyl, decyl, tetradecyl, and eicosyl. Examples of metal alkyl compounds include, but are not limited to, Mg(CH₃)₂, Mg(C₂H₅)₂, Mg(C₂H₅)(C₄H₉), Mg(C₄H₉)₂, Mg(C₆H₁₃)₂, Mg(C₁₂H₂₅)₂, Zn(CH₃)₂, Zn(C₂H₅)₂, Zn(C₄H₉)₂, Zn(C₄H₉)(C₈H₁₇), Zn(C₆H₁₃)₂, Zn(C₆H₃)₂, Al(C₂H₅)₃, Al(CH₃)₃, Al(n-C₄H₉)₃, Al(C₈H₁₇)₃, Al(iso-C₄H₉)₃, Al(C₁₂H₂₅)₃, and combinations thereof. Metal alkyl compounds also include substances having one or more halogen or hydride groups, such as ethylaluminum dichloride, diethylaluminum chloride, diethylaluminum hydride, Grignard reagents, diisobutylaluminum hydride, and the like.

In some embodiments, the treating of the metathesis reaction material (e.g., a natural oil or a natural oil derivative) can include contacting the reaction material with a metal alkyl compound and, either simultaneously or separately, contacting the reaction material with a hydride-containing compound. In some embodiments, where the reaction material is contacted simultaneously with the metal alkyl compound and the hydride-containing compound, the hydride-containing compounds can be included in the metal alkyl compound. For example, in some instances, processes used to make certain metal alkyl compounds, such as trialkyl aluminum compounds, can lead to the formation of a certain concentration of hydride-containing compounds. In other embodiments, however, the metal alkyl compounds can be combined with one or more hydride-containing compounds. Or, in some embodiments, the metathesis reaction material can be treated by the hydride-containing compounds in a separate treatment step, which can be performed before, after, or both before and after, treatment of the reaction material with the metal alkyl compounds.

Any suitable hydride-containing compounds can be used. In some embodiments, the hydride-containing compounds are selected from the group consisting of metal aluminum hydrides (e.g., alkali metal aluminum hydrides such as LiAIH₄, NaAlH₄, and the like), alkyl aluminum hydrides (e.g., DIBALH), and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the hydride-containing compound is an alkyl aluminum hydride, such as DIBALH.

In some embodiments, contacting the metathesis reaction material with the hydride-containing compound occurs in the same step as contacting the reaction material with the metal alkyl compound. In some embodiments, the weight-to-weight ratio of the metal alkyl compound to the hydride-containing compound in the treatment composition is from 2:1, or from 5:1, or from 10:1, or from 15:1, or from 20:1 to 1000:1. In some embodiments, the weight-to-weight ratio of the metal alkyl compound to the hydride-containing compound in the treatment composition is at least 2:1, or at least 5:1, or at least 10:1, or at least 15:1, or at least 20:1.

In certain instances, the efficacy of the metathesis catalyst can be improved (e.g., the turnover number can be increased or the overall catalyst loading may be decreased) through slow addition of the catalyst to a substrate. The overall catalyst loading can be decreased by at least 10%, at least 20%, or at least 30% when administered slowly to achieve the same turnover number as a single, full batch loading. The slow addition of overall catalyst loading can include adding fractional catalyst loadings to the reaction materials at an average rate of approximately 10 ppm by weight of catalyst per hour (ppmwt/hr), 5 ppmwt/hr, 1 ppmwt/hr, 0.5 ppmwt/hr, 0.1 ppmwt/hr, 0.05 ppmwt/hr, or 0.01 ppmwt/hr. In some embodiments, the catalyst is slowly added at a rate of between about 0.01-10 ppmwt/hr, 0.05-5 ppmwt/hr, or 0.1-1 ppmwt/hr. The slow addition of the catalyst can be conducted in batch loadings at frequencies of every 5 minutes, 15 minutes, 30 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, 4 hours, 12 hours, or 1 day. In other embodiments, the slow addition is conducted in a continuous addition process.

Pheromone Products

As described above, a number of the fatty olefin derivatives obtained via the methods of the invention can be used as insect pheromones or pheromone precursor materials. The precursor materials and pheromone products include, for example, the compounds listed in Table 1 and Table 6. The method can be used for synthesizing one or more of the pheromones listed in Table 7.

TABLE 7 Pheromone products. Name Name Name (E)-2-Decen-1-ol (Z,Z)-5,9-Tridecadienyl (Z)-10-Hexadecenal acetate (E)-2-Decenyl acetate (Z,Z)-7,11-Tridecadienyl (E)-11-Hexadecen-1-ol acetate (E)-2-Decenal (E,Z,Z)-4,7,10- (E)-11-Hexadecenyl acetate Tridecatrienyl acetate (Z)-2-Decen-1-ol (E)-3-Tetradecen-1-ol (E)-11-Hexadecenal (Z)-2-Decenyl acetate (E)-3-Tetradecenyl acetate (Z)-11-Hexadecen-1-ol (Z)-2-Decenal (Z)-3-Tetradecen-1-ol (Z)-11-Hexadecenyl acetate (E)-3-Decen-1-ol (Z)-3-Tetradecenyl acetate (Z)-11-Hexadecenal (Z)-3-Decenyl acetate (E)-5-Tetradecen-1-ol (Z)-12-Hexadecenyl acetate (Z)-3-Decen-1-ol (E)-5-Tetradecenyl acetate (Z)-12-Hexadecenal (Z)-4-Decen-1-ol (E)-5-Tetradecenal (E)-14-Hexadecenal (E)-4-Decenyl acetate (Z)-5-Tetradecen-1-ol (Z)-14-Hexadecenyl acetate (Z)-4-Decenyl acetate (Z)-5-Tetradecenyl acetate (E,E)-1,3-Hexadecadien-1-ol (Z)-4-Decenal (Z)-5-Tetradecenal (E,Z)-4,6-Hexadecadien-1-ol (E)-5-Decen-1-ol (E)-6-Tetradecenyl acetate (E,Z)-4,6-Hexadecadienyl acetate (E)-5-Decenyl acetate (Z)-6-Tetradecenyl acetate (E,Z)-4,6-Hexadecadienal (Z)-5-Decen-1-ol (E)-7-Tetradecen-1-ol (E,Z)-6,11-Hexadecadienyl acetate (Z)-5-Decenyl acetate (E)-7-Tetradecenyl acetate (E,Z)-6,11-Hexadecadienal (Z)-5-Decenal (Z)-7-Tetradecen-1-ol (Z,Z)-7,10-Hexadecadien-1- ol (E)-7-Decenyl acetate (Z)-7-Tetradecenyl acetate (Z,Z)-7,10-Hexadecadienyl acetate (Z)-7-Decenyl acetate (Z)-7-Tetradecenal (Z,E)-7,11-Hexadecadien-1- ol (E)-8-Decen-1-ol (E)-8-Tetradecenyl acetate (Z,E)-7,11-Hexadecadienyl acetate (E,E)-2,4-Decadienal (Z)-8-Tetradecen-1-ol (Z,E)-7,11-Hexadecadienal (E,Z)-2,4-Decadienal (Z)-8-Tetradecenyl acetate (Z,Z)-7,11-Hexadecadien-1- ol (Z,Z)-2,4-Decadienal (Z)-8-Tetradecenal (Z,Z)-7,11-Hexadecadienyl acetate (E,E)-3,5-Decadienyl (E)-9-Tetradecen-1-ol (Z,Z)-7,11-Hexadecadienal acetate (Z,E)-3,5-Decadienyl (E)-9-Tetradecenyl acetate (Z,Z)-8,10-Hexadecadienyl acetate acetate (Z,Z)-4,7-Decadien-1-ol (Z)-9-Tetradecen-1-ol (E,Z)-8,11-Hexadecadienal (Z,Z)-4,7-Decadienyl (Z)-9-Tetradecenyl acetate (E,E)-9,11-Hexadecadienal acetate (E)-2-Undecenyl acetate (Z)-9-Tetradecenal (E,Z)-9,11-Hexadecadienyl acetate (E)-2-Undecenal (E)-10-Tetradecenyl (E,Z)-9,11-Hexadecadienal acetate (Z)-5-Undecenyl acetate (Z)-10-Tetradecenyl (Z,E)-9,11-Hexadecadienal acetate (Z)-7-Undecenyl acetate (E)-11-Tetradecen-1-ol (Z,Z)-9,11-Hexadecadienal (Z)-8-Undecenyl acetate (E)-11-Tetradecenyl (E,E)-10,12-Hexadecadien- acetate 1-ol (Z)-9-Undecenyl acetate (E)-11-Tetradecenal (E,E)-10,12-Hexadecadienyl acetate (E)-2-Dodecenal (Z)-11-Tetradecen-1-ol (E,E)-10,12-Hexadecadienal (Z)-3-Dodecen-1-ol (Z)-11-Tetradecenyl (E,Z)-10,12-Hexadecadien- acetate 1-ol (E)-3-Dodecenyl acetate (Z)-11-Tetradecenal (E,Z)-10,12-Hexadecadienyl acetate (Z)-3-Dodecenyl acetate (E)-12-Tetradecenyl (E,Z)-10,12-Hexadecadienal acetate (E)-4-Dodecenyl acetate (Z)-12-Tetradecenyl (Z,E)-10,12-Hexadecadienyl acetate acetate (E)-5-Dodecen-1-ol (E,E)-2,4-Tetradecadienal (Z,E)-10,12-Hexadecadienal (E)-5-Dodecenyl acetate (E,E)-3,5-Tetradecadienyl (Z,Z)-10,12-Hexadecadienal acetate (Z)-5-Dodecen-1-ol (E,Z)-3,5-Tetradecadienyl (E,E)-11,13-Hexadecadien- acetate 1-ol (Z)-5-Dodecenyl acetate (Z,E)-3,5-Tetradecadienyl (E,E)-11,13-Hexadecadienyl acetate acetate (Z)-5-Dodecenal (E,Z)-3,7-Tetradecadienyl (E,E)-11,13-Hexadecadienal acetate (E)-6-Dodecen-1-ol (E,Z)-3,8-Tetradecadienyl (E,Z)-11,13-Hexadecadien- acetate 1-ol (Z)-6-Dodecenyl acetate (E,Z)-4,9-Tetradecadienyl (E,Z)-11,13-Hexadecadienyl acetate acetate (E)-6-Dodecenal (E,Z)-4,9-Tetradecadienal (E,Z)-11,13-Hexadecadienal (E)-7-Dodecen-1-ol (E,Z)-4,10-Tetradecadienyl (Z,E)-11,13-Hexadecadien- acetate 1-ol (E)-7-Dodecenyl acetate (E,E)-5,8-Tetradecadienal (Z,E)-11,13-Hexadecadienyl acetate (E)-7-Dodecenal (Z,Z)-5,8-Tetradecadien-1- (Z,E)-11,13-Hexadecadienal ol (Z)-7-Dodecen-1-ol (Z,Z)-5,8-Tetradecadienyl (Z,Z)-11,13-Hexadecadien- acetate 1-ol (Z)-7-Dodecenyl acetate (Z,Z)-5,8-Tetradecadienal (Z,Z)-11,13-Hexadecadienyl acetate (Z)-7-Dodecenal (E,E)-8,10-Tetradecadien- (Z,Z)-11,13-Hexadecadienal 1-ol (E)-8-Dodecen-1-ol (E,E)-8,10-Tetradecadienyl (E,E)-10,14-Hexadecadienal acetate (E)-8-Dodecenyl acetate (E,E)-8,10-Tetradecadienal (Z,E)-11,14-Hexadecadienyl acetate (E)-8-Dodecenal (E,Z)-8,10-Tetradecadienyl (E,E,Z)-4,6,10- acetate Hexadecatrien-1-ol (Z)-8-Dodecen-1-ol (E,Z)-8,10-Tetradecadienal (E,E,Z)-4,6,10- Hexadecatrienyl acetate (Z)-8-Dodecenyl acetate (Z,E)-8,10-Tetradecadien- (E,Z,Z)-4,6,10- 1-ol Hexadecatrien-1-ol (E)-9-Dodecen-1-ol (Z,E)-8,10-Tetradecadienyl (E,Z,Z)-4,6,10- acetate Hexadecatrienyl acetate (E)-9-Dodecenyl acetate (Z,Z)-8,10-Tetradecadienal (E,E,Z)-4,6,11- Hexadecatrienyl acetate (E)-9-Dodecenal (E,E)-9,11-Tetradecadienyl (E,E,Z)-4,6,11- acetate Hexadecatrienal (Z)-9-Dodecen-1-ol (E,Z)-9,11-Tetradecadienyl (Z,Z,E)-7,11,13- acetate Hexadecatrienal (Z)-9-Dodecenyl acetate (Z,E)-9,11-Tetradecadien- (E,E,E)-10,12,14- 1-ol Hexadecatrienyl acetate (Z)-9-Dodecenal (Z,E)-9,11-Tetradecadienyl (E,E,E)-10,12,14- acetate Hexadecatrienal (E)-10-Dodecen-1-ol (Z,E)-9,11-Tetradecadienal (E,E,Z)-10,12,14- Hexadecatrienyl acetate (E)-10-Dodecenyl acetate (Z,Z)-9,11-Tetradecadien- (E,E,Z)-10,12,14- 1-ol Hexadecatrienal (E)-10-Dodecenal (Z,Z)-9,11-Tetradecadienyl (E,E,Z,Z)-4,6,11,13- acetate Hexadecatetraenal (Z)-10-Dodecen-1-ol (Z,Z)-9,11-Tetradecadienal (E)-2-Heptadecenal (Z)-10-Dodecenyl acetate (E,E)-9,12-Tetradecadienyl (Z)-2-Heptadecenal acetate (E,Z)-3,5-Dodecadienyl (Z,E)-9,12-Tetradecadien- (E)-8-Heptadecen-1-ol acetate 1-ol (Z,E)-3,5-Dodecadienyl (Z,E)-9,12-Tetradecadienyl (E)-8-Heptadecenyl acetate acetate acetate (Z,Z)-3,6-Dodecadien-1-ol (Z,E)-9,12-Tetradecadienal (Z)-8-Heptadecen-1-ol (E,E)-4,10-Dodecadienyl (Z,Z)-9,12-Tetradecadien- (Z)-9-Heptadecenal acetate 1-ol (E,E)-5,7-Dodecadien-1-ol (Z,Z)-9,12-Tetradecadienyl (E)-10-Heptadecenyl acetate acetate (E,E)-5,7-Dodecadienyl (E,E)-10,12-Tetradecadien- (Z)-11-Heptadecen-1-ol acetate 1-ol (E,Z)-5,7-Dodecadien-1-ol (E,E)-10,12- (Z)-11-Heptadecenyl acetate Tetradecadienyl acetate (E,Z)-5,7-Dodecadienyl (E,E)-10,12- (E,E)-4,8-Heptadecadienyl acetate Tetradecadienal acetate (E,Z)-5,7-Dodecadienal (E,Z)-10,12- (Z,Z)-8,10-Heptadecadien-1- Tetradecadienyl acetate ol (Z,E)-5,7-Dodecadien-1-ol (Z,E)-10,12- (Z,Z)-8,11-Heptadecadienyl Tetradecadienyl acetate acetate (Z,E)-5,7-Dodecadienyl (Z,Z)-10,12-Tetradecadien- (E)-2-Octadecenyl acetate acetate 1-ol (Z,E)-5,7-Dodecadienal (Z,Z)-10,12- (E)-2-Octadecenal Tetradecadienyl acetate (Z,Z)-5,7-Dodecadienyl (E,Z,Z)-3,8,11- (Z)-2-Octadecenyl acetate acetate Tetradecatrienyl acetate (Z,Z)-5,7-Dodecadienal (E)-8-Pentadecen-1-ol (Z)-2-Octadecenal (E,E)-7,9-Dodecadienyl (E)-8-Pentadecenyl acetate (E)-9-Octadecen-1-ol acetate (E,Z)-7,9-Dodecadien-1-ol (Z)-8-Pentadecen-1-ol (E)-9-Octadecenyl acetate (E,Z)-7,9-Dodecadienyl (Z)-8-Pentadecenyl acetate (E)-9-Octadecenal acetate (E,Z)-7,9-Dodecadienal (Z)-9-Pentadecenyl acetate (Z)-9-Octadecen-1-ol (Z,E)-7,9-Dodecadien-1-ol (E)-9-Pentadecenyl acetate (Z)-9-Octadecenyl acetate (Z,E)-7,9-Dodecadienyl (Z)-10-Pentadecenyl (Z)-9-Octadecenal acetate acetate (Z,Z)-7,9-Dodecadien-1-ol (Z)-10-Pentadecenal (E)-11-Octadecen-1-ol (Z,Z)-7,9-Dodecadienyl (E)-12-Pentadecenyl (E)-11-Octadecenal acetate acetate (E,E)-8,10-Dodecadien-1- (Z)-12-Pentadecenyl (Z)-11-Octadecen-1-ol ol acetate (E,E)-8,10-Dodecadienyl (Z,Z)-6,9-Pentadecadien-1- (Z)-11-Octadecenyl acetate acetate ol (E,E)-8,10-Dodecadienal (Z,Z)-6,9-Pentadecadienyl (Z)-11-Octadecenal acetate (E,Z)-8,10-Dodecadien-1- (Z,Z)-6,9-Pentadecadienal (E)-13-Octadecenyl acetate ol (E,Z)-8,10-Dodecadienyl (E,E)-8,10- (E)-13-Octadecenal acetate Pentadecadienyl acetate (E,Z)-8,10-Dodecadienal (E,Z)-8,10-Pentadecadien- (Z)-13-Octadecen-1-ol 1-ol (Z,E)-8,10-Dodecadien-1- (E,Z)-8,10- (Z)-13-Octadecenyl acetate ol Pentadecadienyl acetate (Z,E)-8,10-Dodecadienyl (Z,E)-8,10- (Z)-13-Octadecenal acetate Pentadecadienyl acetate (Z,E)-8,10-Dodecadienal (Z,Z)-8,10- (E)-14-Octadecenal Pentadecadienyl acetate (Z,Z)-8,10-Dodecadien-1- (E,Z)-9,11-Pentadecadienal (E,Z)-2,13-Octadecadien-1- ol ol (Z,Z)-8,10-Dodecadienyl (Z,Z)-9,11-Pentadecadienal (E,Z)-2,13-Octadecadienyl acetate acetate (Z,E,E)-3,6,8-Dodecatrien- (Z)-3-Hexadecenyl acetate (E,Z)-2,13-Octadecadienal 1-ol (Z,Z,E)-3,6,8-Dodecatrien- (E)-5-Hexadecen-1-ol (Z,E)-2,13-Octadecadienyl 1-ol acetate (E)-2-Tridecenyl acetate (E)-5-Hexadecenyl acetate (Z,Z)-2,13-Octadecadien-1- ol (Z)-2-Tridecenyl acetate (Z)-5-Hexadecen-1-ol (Z,Z)-2,13-Octadecadienyl acetate (E)-3-Tridecenyl acetate (Z)-5-Hexadecenyl acetate (E,E)-3,13-Octadecadienyl acetate (E)-4-Tridecenyl acetate (E)-6-Hexadecenyl acetate (E,Z)-3,13-Octadecadienyl acetate (Z)-4-Tridecenyl acetate (E)-7-Hexadecen-1-ol (E,Z)-3,13-Octadecadienal (Z)-4-Tridecenal (E)-7-Hexadecenyl acetate (Z,E)-3,13-Octadecadienyl acetate (E)-6-Tridecenyl acetate (E)-7-Hexadecenal (Z,Z)-3,13-Octadecadienyl acetate (Z)-7-Tridecenyl acetate (Z)-7-Hexadecen-1-ol (Z,Z)-3,13-Octadecadienal (E)-8-Tridecenyl acetate (Z)-7-Hexadecenyl acetate (E,E)-5,9-Octadecadien-1-ol (Z)-8-Tridecenyl acetate (Z)-7-Hexadecenal (E,E)-5,9-Octadecadienyl acetate (E)-9-Tridecenyl acetate (E)-8-Hexadecenyl acetate (E,E)-9,12-Octadecadien-1- ol (Z)-9-Tridecenyl acetate (E)-9-Hexadecen-1-ol (Z,Z)-9,12-Octadecadienyl acetate (Z)-10-Tridecenyl acetate (E)-9-Hexadecenyl acetate (Z,Z)-9,12-Octadecadienal (E)-11-Tridecenyl acetate (E)-9-Hexadecenal (Z,Z)-11,13-Octadecadienal (Z)-11-Tridecenyl acetate (Z)-9-Hexadecen-1-ol (E,E)-11,14-Octadecadienal (E,Z)-4,7-Tridecadienyl (Z)-9-Hexadecenyl acetate (Z,Z)-13,15-Octadecadienal acetate (Z,Z)-4,7-Tridecadien-1-ol (Z)-9-Hexadecenal (Z,Z,Z)-3,6,9- Octadecatrienyl acetate (Z,Z)-4,7-Tridecadienyl (E)-10-Hexadecen-1-ol (E,E,E)-9,12,15- acetate Octadecatrien-1-ol (E,Z)-5,9-Tridecadienyl (E)-10-Hexadecenal (Z,Z,Z)-9,12,15- acetate Octadecatrienyl acetate (Z,E)-5,9-Tridecadienyl (Z)-10-Hexadecenyl (Z,Z,Z)-9,12,15- acetate acetate Octadecatrienal

In certain embodiments, the invention provides a method for synthesizing a fatty olefin derivative as described above wherein the fatty olefin derivative is selected from (E)-7-dodecenal; (Z)-10-dodecenyl acetate; (Z)-10-hexadecenyl acetate; (Z)-10-pentadecenal; (Z)-10-pentadecenyl acetate; (Z)-10-tetradecenyl acetate; (Z)-10-tridecenyl acetate; (Z)-7-decenyl acetate; (Z)-7-dodecenyl acetate; (Z)-7-hexadecenal; (Z)-7-hexadecenyl acetate; (Z)-7-tetradecenal; (Z)-7-tetradecenyl acetate; (Z)-7-undecenyl acetate; (Z)-9-dodecenal; (Z)-9-dodecenyl acetate; (Z)-9-hexadecenal; (Z)-9-hexadecenyl acetate; (Z)-9-pentadecenyl acetate; (Z)-9-tetradecenal; (Z)-9-tetradecenyl acetate; (Z)-9-tetradecenyl formate; (Z)-9-tetradecenyl nitrate; (Z)-9-tridecenyl acetate; (Z)-9-undecenyl acetate; (E)-11-tetradecen-1-ol; (E)-11-tetradecenyl acetate; (E)-5-decen-1-ol; (E)-5-decenyl acetate; (E)-8-dodecen-1-ol; (E)-8-dodecenyl acetate; (Z)-11-hexadecen-1-ol; (Z)-11-hexadecenal; (Z)-11-hexadecenyl acetate; (Z)-11-tetraceden-1-ol; (Z)-11-tetracedenyl acetate; (Z)-13-octadecen-1-ol; (Z)-13-octadecenal; (Z)-3-hexanol; (Z)-3-nonen-1-ol; (Z)-5-decen-1-ol; (Z)-5-decenyl acetate; (Z)-7-dodecen-1-ol; (Z)-7-hexadecen-1-ol; (Z)-8-dodecen-1-ol; (Z)-8-dodecenyl acetate; (Z)-9-dodecen-1-ol; (Z)-9-hexadecen-1-ol; and (Z)-9-tetradecen-1-ol. In some such embodiments, the fatty olefin derivative is a pheromone.

In some embodiments, the fatty olefin derivative is selected from (E)-7-dodecenal; (Z)-10-dodecenyl acetate; (Z)-10-hexadecenyl acetate; (Z)-10-pentadecenal; (Z)-10-pentadecenyl acetate; (Z)-10-tetradecenyl acetate; (Z)-10-tridecenyl acetate; (Z)-7-decenyl acetate; (Z)-7-dodecenyl acetate; (Z)-7-hexadecenal; (Z)-7-hexadecenyl acetate; (Z)-7-tetradecenal; (Z)-7-tetradecenyl acetate; (Z)-7-undecenyl acetate; (Z)-9-dodecenal; (Z)-9-dodecenyl acetate; (Z)-9-hexadecenal; (Z)-9-hexadecenyl acetate; (Z)-9-pentadecenyl acetate; (Z)-9-tetradecenal; (Z)-9-tetradecenyl acetate; (Z)-9-tetradecenyl formate; (Z)-9-tetradecenyl nitrate; (Z)-9-tridecenyl acetate; and (Z)-9-undecenyl acetate. In some such embodiments, the fatty olefin derivative is a pheromone.

In some embodiments, the fatty olefin derivative is selected from (E)-7-dodecenal; (Z)-10-dodecenyl acetate; (Z)-10-hexadecenyl acetate; (Z)-10-pentadecenal; (Z)-10-pentadecenyl acetate; (Z)-10-tetradecenyl acetate; (Z)-10-Tridecenyl acetate; (Z)-7-decenyl acetate; (Z)-7-hexadecenyl acetate; (Z)-7-tetradecenal; (Z)-7-tetradecenyl acetate; (Z)-7-undecenyl acetate; (Z)-9-dodecenal; (Z)-9-pentadecenyl acetate; (Z)-9-tetradecenal; (Z)-9-tetradecenyl formate; (Z)-9-tetradecenyl nitrate; (Z)-9-tridecenyl acetate; and (Z)-9-undecenyl acetate. In some such embodiments, the fatty olefin derivative is a pheromone.

As described above, the methods of the invention can also be used for the synthesis of polyene derivatives, including polyene pheromones. See, for example, Scheme 6.

Polyene derivatives include dienes, trienes, and tetraenes. The double bonds in the polyenes can be Z double bonds or E double bonds. Dienes that can be prepared using the methods of the invention include, but are not limited to, (6Z,9Z)-heptadeca-6,9-diene; (6Z,9Z)-octadeca-6,9-diene; (6Z,9Z)-nonadeca-6,9-diene; (6Z,9Z)-eicosa-6,9-diene; (6Z,9Z)-henicosa-6,9-diene; (6Z,9Z)-docosa-6,9-diene; and (6Z,9Z)-tricosa-6,9-diene. The dienes can be used as pheromones.

Trienes that can be prepared using the methods of the invention include, but are not limited to, (3Z,6Z,9Z)-heptadeca-3,6,9-triene; (3Z,6Z,9Z)-octadeca-3,6,9-triene; (3Z,6Z,9Z)-nonadeca-3,6,9-triene; (3Z,6Z,9Z)-eicosa-3,6,9-triene; (3Z,6Z,9Z)-henicosa-3,6,9-triene; (3Z,6Z,9Z)-docosa-3,6,9-triene; (3Z,6Z,9Z)-tricosa-3,6,9-triene; (4E,6Z,9Z)-heptadeca-4,6,9-triene; (4E,6Z,9Z)-octadeca-4,6,9-triene; (4E,6Z,9Z)-nonadeca-4,6,9-triene; (4E,6Z,9Z)-eicosa-4,6,9-triene; (4E,6Z,9Z)-henicosa-4,6,9-triene; (4E,6Z,9Z)-docosa-4,6,9-triene; and (4E,6Z,9Z)-tricosa-4,6,9-triene. The trienes can be used as pheromones.

Tetraenes that can be prepared using the methods of the invention include, but are not limited to, (3Z,6Z,9Z)-heptadeca-1,3,6,9-tetraene; (3Z,6Z,9Z)-octadeca-1,3,6,9-tetraene; (3Z,6Z,9Z)-nonadeca-1,3,6,9-tetraene; (3Z,6Z,9Z)-eicosa-1,3,6,9-tetraene; (3Z,6Z,9Z)-henicosa-1,3,6,9-tetraene; (3Z,6Z,9Z)-docosa-1,3,6,9-tetraene; (3Z,6Z,9Z)-tricosa-1,3,6,9-tetraene; (3Z,6Z,9Z,11E/Z)-heptadeca-3,6,9,11-tetraene; (3Z,6Z,9Z,11E/Z)-octadeca-3,6,9,11-tetraene; (3Z,6Z,9Z,11E/Z)-nonadeca-3,6,9,11-tetraene; (3Z,6Z,9Z,11E/Z)-eicosa-3,6,9,11-tetraene; (3Z,6Z,9Z,11E/Z)-henicosa-3,6,9,11-tetraene; (3Z,6Z,9Z,11E/Z)-docosa-3,6,9,11-tetraene; and (3Z,6Z,9Z,11E/Z)-tricosa-3,6,9,11-tetraene. The tetraenes can be used as pheromones.

Polyene derivatives include oxidized polyenes such as ketones and epoxides. Examples of ketone polyene derivatives include, but are not limited to: (6Z,9Z)-heptadeca-6,9-dien-3-one; (6Z,9Z)-octadeca-6,9-dien-3-one; (6Z,9Z)-nonadeca-6,9-dien-3-one; (6Z,9Z)-eicosa-6,9-dien-3-one; (6Z,9Z)-henicosa-6,9-dien-3-one; (6Z,9Z)-docosa-6,9-dien-3-one; and (6E,9E)-tricosa-6,9-dien-3-one. Examples of polyene epoxide derivatives include, but are not limited to 3Z,6Z-9R,10S-epoxy-heneicosadiene, 3Z,6Z-9R,10S-epoxy-docosadiene, and the like. The ketone polyene derivatives and the polyene epoxide derivatives can be used as pheromones. The structure, taxonomic distribution, mechanisms of action, and biosynthetic pathways of polyene pheromones (including polyene epoxides) are described by Millar (Annu. Rev. Entomol. 2000. 45:575-604).

Pheromone Compositions and Uses Thereof

Pheromones prepared according to the methods of the invention can be formulated for use as insect control compositions. The pheromone compositions can include a carrier, and/or be contained in a dispenser. The carrier can be, but is not limited to, an inert liquid or solid.

Examples of solid carriers include but are not limited to fillers such as kaolin, bentonite, dolomite, calcium carbonate, talc, powdered magnesia, Fuller's earth, wax, gypsum, diatomaceous earth, rubber, plastic, silica and China clay. Examples of liquid carriers include, but are not limited to, water; alcohols, such as ethanol, butanol or glycol, as well as their ethers or esters, such as methylglycol acetate; ketones, such as acetone, cyclohexanone, methylethyl ketone, methylisobutylketone, or isophorone; alkanes such as hexane, pentane, or heptanes; aromatic hydrocarbons, such as xylenes or alkyl naphthalenes; mineral or vegetable oils; aliphatic chlorinated hydrocarbons, such as trichloroethane or methylene chloride; aromatic chlorinated hydrocarbons, such as chlorobenzenes; water-soluble or strongly polar solvents such as dimethylformamide, dimethyl sulfoxide, or N-methylpyrrolidone; liquefied gases; and mixtures thereof. Baits or feeding stimulants can also be added to the carrier.

Pheromone compositions can be formulated so as to provide slow release into the atmosphere, and/or so as to be protected from degradation following release. For example, the pheromone compositions can be included in carriers such as microcapsules, biodegradable flakes and paraffin wax-based matrices.

Pheromone compositions can contain other pheromones or attractants provided that the other compounds do not substantially interfere with the activity of the composition. The pheromone compositions can also include insecticides. Examples of suitable insecticides include, but are not limited to, buprofezin, pyriproxyfen, flonicamid, acetamiprid, dinotefuran, clothianidin, acephate, malathion, quinolphos, chloropyriphos, profenophos, bendiocarb, bifenthrin, chlorpyrifos, cyfluthrin, diazinon, pyrethrum, fenpropathrin, kinoprene, insecticidal soap or oil, and mixtures thereof.

Pheromone compositions can be used in conjunction with a dispenser for release of the composition in a particular environment. Any suitable dispenser known in the art can be used. Examples of such dispensers include but are not limited to bubble caps comprising a reservoir with a permeable barrier through which pheromones are slowly released, pads, beads, tubes rods, spirals or balls composed of rubber, plastic, leather, cotton, cotton wool, wood or wood products that are impregnated with the pheromone composition. For example, polyvinyl chloride laminates, pellets, granules, ropes or spirals from which the pheromone composition evaporates, or rubber septa. One of skill in the art will be able to select suitable carriers and/or dispensers for the desired mode of application, storage, transport or handling.

A variety of pheromones, including those set forth in Table 1 can be prepared according to the methods of the invention and formulated as described above. For example, the methods of the invention can be used to prepare peach twig borer (PTB) sex pheromone, which is a mixture of (E)-dec-5-en-1-ol (17%) and (E)-dec-5-en-1-yl acetate (83%). The PTB sex pheromone can be used in conjunction with a sustained pheromone release device having a polymer container containing a mixture of the PTB sex pheromone and a fatty acid ester (such as a sebacate, laurate, palmitate, stearate or arachidate ester) or a fatty alcohol (such as undecanol, dodecanol, tridecanol, tridecenol, tetradecanol, tetradecenol, tetradecadienol, pentadecanol, pentadecenol, hexadecanol, hexadecenol, hexadecadienol, octadecenol and octadecadienol). The polymer container can be a tube, an ampule, or a bag made of a polyolefin or an olefin component-containing copolymer. Sex pheromones of other pest insects such the cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera), fall army worm (Spodoptera frugiperda), oriental fruit moth (Grapholita molesta) and leaf roller (Tortricidae) can be used in this type of sustained pheromone release device. The sex pheromones typically include one or more aliphatic acetate compounds having from 10 to 16 carbon atoms (e.g., decyl acetate, decenyl acetate, decadienyl acetate, undecyl acetate, undecenyl acetate, dodecyl acetate, dodecenyl acetate, dodecadienyl acetate, tridecyl acetate, tridecenyl acetate, tridecadienyl acetate, tetradecyl acetate, tetradecenyl acetate, tetradecadienyl acetate, and the like) and/or one or more aliphatic aldehyde compounds having from 10 to 16 carbon atoms (e.g., 7-hexadecenal, 11-hexadecenal, 13-octadecenal, and the like).

Pheromones prepared according to the methods of the invention, as well as compositions containing the pheromones, can be used to control the behavior and/or growth of insects in various environments. The pheromones can be used, for example, to attract or repel male or female insects to or from a particular target area. The pheromones can be used to attract insects away from vulnerable crop areas. The pheromones can also be used example to attract insects as part of a strategy for insect monitoring, mass trapping, lure/attract-and-kill or mating disruption.

Mass trapping involves placing a high density of traps in a crop to be protected so that a high proportion of the insects are removed before the crop is damaged. Lure/attract-and-kill techniques are similar except once the insect is attracted to a lure, it is subjected to a killing agent. Where the killing agent is an insecticide, a dispenser can also contain a bait or feeding stimulant that will entice the insects to ingest an effective amount of the insecticide.

It will be appreciated by a person skilled in the art that a variety of different traps are possible. Suitable examples of such traps include water traps, sticky traps, and one-way traps. Sticky traps come in many varieties. One example of a sticky trap is of cardboard construction, triangular or wedge-shaped in cross-section, where the interior surfaces are coated with a non-drying sticky substance. The insects contact the sticky surface and are caught. Water traps include pans of water and detergent that are used to trap insects. The detergent destroys the surface tension of the water, causing insects that are attracted to the pan, to drown in the water. One-way traps allow an insect to enter the trap but prevent it from exiting. The traps of the invention can be colored brightly, to provide additional attraction for the insects.

The trap is positioned in an area infested (or potentially infested) with insects. Generally, the trap is placed on or close to a tree or large plant and the pheromone attracts the insects to the trap. The insects can then be caught, immobilized and/or killed within the trap, for example, by the killing agent present in the trap.

Pheromones prepared according to the methods of the invention can also be used to disrupt mating. Strategies of mating disruption include confusion, trail-masking and false-trail following. Constant exposure of insects to a high concentration of a pheromone can prevent male insects from responding to normal levels of the pheromone released by female insects. Trail-masking uses a pheromone to destroy the trail of pheromones released by females. False-trail following is carried out by laying numerous spots of a pheromone in high concentration to present the male with many false trails to follow. When released in sufficiently high quantities, the male insects are unable to find the natural source of the sex pheromones (the female insects) so that mating cannot occur.

Insect populations can be surveyed or monitored by counting the number of insects in a target area (e.g., the number of insects caught in a trap). Inspection by a horticulturist can provide information about the life stage of a population. Knowing where insects are, how many of them there are, and their life stage enables informed decisions to be made as to where and when insecticides or other treatments are warranted. For example, a discovery of a high insect population can necessitate the use of methods for removal of the insect. Early warning of an infestation in a new habitat can allow action to be taken before the population becomes unmanageable. Conversely, a discovery of a low insect population can lead to a decision that it is sufficient to continue monitoring the population. Insect populations can be monitored regularly so that the insects are only controlled when they reach a certain threshold. This provides cost-effective control of the insects and reduces the environmental impact of the use of insecticides.

As will be apparent to one of skill in the art, the amount of a pheromone or pheromone composition used for a particular application can vary depending on several factors such as the type and level of infestation; the type of composition used; the concentration of the active components; how the composition is provided, for example, the type of dispenser used; the type of location to be treated; the length of time the method is to be used for; and environmental factors such as temperature, wind speed and direction, rainfall and humidity. Those of skill in the art will be able to determine an effective amount of a pheromone or pheromone composition for use in a given application.

IV. EXAMPLES Example 1 Cross-Metathesis of dec-9-en-1-yl acetate with hex-1-ene

Prior to introduction of the metathesis catalyst, dec-9-en-1-yl acetate (CAS #50816-18-7) and hex-1-ene (CAS #592-41-6) are treated with either aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) or a trialkylaluminum as described in U.S. Pat. No. 9,388,097 to reduce moisture, peroxides, and other potential catalyst poisons to a level suitable for conducting the metathesis reaction. In a nitrogen-filled glovebox, a 20 mL scintillation vial is charged with a magnetic stir bar, 1.00 g of pretreated dece-9-en-1-yl acetate and 1.27 g of pretreated hex-1-ene. The vial is closed with a perforated septum and placed in an aluminum heating block regulated at 40° C. atop a hotplate/magnetic stirrer where the stirring rate is fixed at 500 rpm. A solution of 1-({3,3′-dibromo-2′-[(tert-butyldimethylsilyl)oxy]-5H,5′H-6H,6′H,7H,7′H,8H,8′H-[1,1′-binaphthalene]-2-yl }oxy)-1-(2,5-dimethylpyrrol-1-yl)-1-(2-methyl-2-phenylpropylidene)-N-phenyltungstenimine (CAS #1628041-76-8) catalyst in dry and degassed toluene is prepared by weighing 10 mg of the catalyst into a 1 mL volumetric flask and diluting to the calibration mark with solvent. Using a gas tight microliter syringe, 57 μL of the catalyst solution (0.57 mg, 0.025 wt %, 0.0025 mol %) is withdrawn from the volumetric flask and added to the reaction mixture. After four hours, the vial is removed from the glovebox and the reaction mixture is analyzed by GC-MS. The GC-MS data indicates that (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-yl acetate is formed in high yield.

Example 2 Cross-Metathesis of Methyl dec-9-enoate with oct-1-ene

Prior to introduction of the metathesis catalyst, methyl dec-9-enoate (CAS #25601-41-6) and oct-1-ene (CAS #111-66-0) are treated to reduce moisture, peroxides and other potential catalyst poisons to a level suitable for conducting the metathesis reaction as described in U.S. Pat. No. 9,388,097. In a nitrogen-filled glovebox, a 20 mL scintillation vial is charged with a magnetic stir bar, 1.00 g of pretreated methyl dec-9-enoate and 1.83 g of pretreated oct-1-ene. The vial is closed with a perforated septum and placed in an aluminum heating block regulated at 40° C. atop a hotplate/magnetic stirrer where the stirring rate is fixed at 500 rpm. A solution of 1-({3,3′-dibromo-2′-[(tert-butyldimethylsilyl)oxy]-5H,5′H-6H,6′H,7H,7′H,8H,8′H-[1,1′-binaphthalene]-2-yl}oxy)-1-(2,5-dimethylpyrrol-1-yl)-1-(2-methyl-2-phenylpropylidene)-N-phenyltungstenimine (CAS #1628041-76-8) catalyst in dry and degassed toluene is prepared by weighing 10 mg of the catalyst into a 1 mL volumetric flask and diluting to the calibration mark with solvent. Using a gas tight microliter syringe, 71 μL of the catalyst solution (0.71 mg cat., 0.025 wt %, 0.0029 mol %) is withdrawn from the volumetric flask and added reaction mixture. After four hours the vial is removed from the glovebox and the reaction mixture is analyzed by GC-MS. The GC-MS data indicates that methyl (Z)-hexadec-9-enoate is formed in high yield.

Example 3 Reduction of Methyl hexadec-9-enoate with sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy) Aluminumhydride.

In an oven-dried, nitrogen-flushed flask sealed with a rubber septum and containing a magnetic stir bar is added 0.47 g N-methylpiperazine (CAS #109-01-3) and 10 mL of dry, degassed toluene. The flask is submerged in an ice bath and, with magnetic stirring, 1.48 g of a 70% solution of sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy)aluminumhydride (CAS #22722-98-1) in toluene is added dropwise. In a separate oven dried, nitrogen-flushed flask sealed with a rubber septum is added 1.00 g of methyl hexadec-9-enoate, prepared through the process detailed in Example 2, and 20 mL of dry, degassed toluene. The flask is then submerged in an ice bath and stirrer via an external magnetic stirrer. After stirring for one hour, the N-methylpiperazine/sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy)aluminumhydride mixture is added dropwise via a cannula to the toluene solution of ester. The resulting mixture is stirred at ice-bath temperature for one hour and then brought to ambient temperature and stirred for an additional hour. The reaction is quenched by addition of 20 mL of deionized water and then extracted with 20 mL of EtOAc. The organic layer is washed with 20 mL of deionized water, dried over sodium sulfated and then concentrated in vacuo. The product is analyzed by GC-MS, indicating that (Z)-hexadec-9-enal is formed in high yield.

Example 4 Preparation of Eicosa-3,6,9-triene, a Polyene Pheromone

Prior to introduction of metathesis catalysts, linseed oil (CAS #8001-26-1) and dodec-1-ene (CAS #112-41-4) are treated to reduce moisture, peroxides and other potential catalyst poisons to the desired level. In a nitrogen-filled glovebox, a 20 mL scintillation vial is charged with a magnetic stir bar, 1.00 g of pretreated linseed oil and 0.481 g of pretreated dec-1-ene. The vial is closed with a perforated septum and placed in an aluminum heating block regulated at 40° C. atop a hotplate/magnetic stirrer where the stirring rate is fixed at 500 rpm. A solution of 1-(ο3,3′-dibromo-2′-[(tert-butyldimethylsilyl)oxy]-5H,5′-6H,6′H, 7H,7′H,8H,8′H-[1,1′-binaphthalene]-2-yl}oxy)-1-(2,5-dimethylpyrrol-1-yl)-1-(2-methyl-2-phenylpropylidene)-N-phenyltungstenimine (CAS #1628041-76-8) in dry and degassed toluene is prepared by weighing 10 mg of the catalyst into a 1 mL volumetric flask and diluting to the calibration mark with solvent. Using a gas tight microliter syringe, 37 μL (0.37 mg cat., 0.025 wt %, 0.0071 mol %) of the catalyst solution is withdrawn from the volumetric flask and added reaction mixture. After one hour the vial is removed from the glovebox. The reaction mixture is transesterified with methanol using sodium methoxide as a catalyst prior to analysis by GC-MS. The transesterified reaction mixture contains the desired eicosa-3,6,9-triene product (CAS #134370-60-8), as well as small amounts of 1,18-dimethyl octadec-9-enedioate (CAS #13481-97-5), methyl eicos-9-enoate (CAS #10340-21-3), docos-11-ene (CAS #62978-77-2), and cyclohexa-1,4-diene (CAS #628-41-1).

Example 5 Metathesis Catalyst Screening for the Z-Selective Cross-Metathesis of Methyl dec-9-enoate and hex-1-ene

In a nitrogen-filled glovebox, a 30 mL glass vial was charged a with a magnetic stir bar and 2.70 g of an equimolar mixture of methyl dec-9-enoate and hex-1-ene previously treated with activated basic alumina to reduce levels of moisture, peroxide and protic impurities in the method described in U.S. Ser. No. 14/209,686. To the olefin mixture was added 0.0025 mol % of a molybdenum or tungsten metathesis catalysts as a toluene solution. The vial was then closed with a perforated cap and the reaction mixtures were stirred by means of a magnetic hotplate stirrer for a total of four hours after the addition of catalyst. Aliquots of the reaction mixture were taken at one and four hours after the addition of catalyst and analyzed to determine 9-DAME conversion (%) and methyl (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate selectivity (%) (Table 8) by GC-MS/FID after using the equations below in conjuction with external calibration curves obtained for the analytes of interest. GC chromatograms were recorded using a Shimadzu GC2010 Plus instrument equipped with an Agilent DB-23 capillary column with a length of 30 m, an inner diameter of 0.25 mm and a film thickness of 0.25 μm. Nitrogen was used as the carrier gas and the total flow of gas through the column was 61.9 mL/min. Injections were split at a 1:30 ratio with the carrier gas and the injector of the instrument was maintained at a constant temperature of 240° C. The oven temperature was held at 35° C. during the injection and for the following five minutes, then raised to 100° C. at a rate of 35° C./min, raised further to 130° C. at a rate of 7° C./min, raised again to 240° C. at a rate of 35° C./min and finally held at this terminal temperature for 3.71 minutes for a total run length of approx. 18 minutes.

${{{Methyl}\mspace{14mu} {Dec}} - 9 - {{enoate}\mspace{14mu} {Conversion}\mspace{14mu} (\%)}} = {1 - {\left( \frac{{{Final}\mspace{14mu} {mol}\mspace{14mu} {Methyl}\mspace{14mu} {Dec}} - 9 - {enoate}}{{{Initial}\mspace{14mu} {mol}\mspace{14mu} {Methyl}\mspace{14mu} {Dec}} - 9 - {enoate}} \right) \times 100}}$ ${{{Methyl}\mspace{14mu} (Z)} - {Tetradec} - 9 - {{enoate}\mspace{14mu} {Selectivity}\mspace{14mu} (\%)}} = {\left( \frac{{{mol}\mspace{14mu} {Methyl}\mspace{14mu} (Z)} - {Tetradec} - 9 - {enoate}}{\begin{matrix} {{{mol}\mspace{14mu} {Methyl}\mspace{14mu} (Z)} - {Tetradec} - 9 - {enoate} +} \\ {{{mol}\mspace{14mu} {Methyl}\mspace{14mu} (E)} - {Tetradec} - 9 - {enoate}} \end{matrix}} \right) \times 100}$

TABLE 8 4 Hour Reaction Length 24 Hour Reaction Length Methyl Methyl Methyl Methyl Dec-9- (Z)-Tetradec- Dec-9- (Z)-Tetradec- enoate 9-enoate enoate 9-enoate Conversion Selectivity Conversion Selectivity Catalyst (%) (%) (%) (%) 1 40 91 73 90 2 56 94 70 93 3 67 95 68 95 4 51 16 52 16 5 21 95 28 94 6 47 94 54 94 7 <0.1 Not <0.1 Not Determined Determined 8 <0.1 Not <0.1 Not Determined Determined 9 15 95 17 95 10 52 93 60 93

Catalyst Structure Formula  1

C54H70Br2MoN2O2Si  2

C50H62Br2MoN2O2Si  3

C52H68Br2MoN2O2Si  4

C52H68Br2MoN2OSi  5

C50H59FMoN2O  6

C46H52Br2Cl2N2O3SiW  7

C48H56NO2PW  8

C54H52NO2PW  9

C50H60MoN2O 10 C54H50N2OW Ph = phenyl, C6H5; Mes = 2,4,6-trimethylphenyl, 2,4,6-Me3C6H2; TBS = tert-butyldimethylsilyl, SiMe2(t-Bu)

Example 6 Synthesis and Isolation of Methyl (Z)-Tetradec-9-enoate via Cross-Metathesis of Methyl dec-9-enoate and hex-1-ene

Into a glass vessel equipped with an agitator, thermometer and reflux condenser, were charged 500 g of methyl dec-9-enoate (2.71 mol) and 480 g of hex-1-ene (5.70 mol). To the thoroughly homogenized feedstocks a solution of triethylaluminum in toluene (3.82 g, 0.0335 mol, 0.389 mol %) was added in one portion. After agitating at 500 rpm for an hour at 23-25° C., the temperature of the feedstock was raised to 40-41° C. 0.121 g (0.00128 mol %, 123 ppmwt) of tungsten, [(1R)-3,3′-dibromo-2′-[[(1,1-dimethylethyl)dimethylsilyl]oxy]-5,5′, 6,6′,7,7′,8,8′-octahydro[1,1′-binaphthalen]-2-olato-κO][2,6-dichlorobenzenaminato(2-)-κN](2, 5-dimethyl-1H-pyrrol-1-yl)[(2-methoxyphenyl)methylene]-, (T-4)-(CAS #1817807-15-0) was added in four portions to control the rate of ethylene generation and the reaction was allowed to proceed for three hours. After that time GC-FID analysis showed the reaction proceed in 57% Methyl Dec-9-enoate Conversion and 96% Methyl (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate Selectivity. To the cooled (25-30° C.) reaction mixture was added 10 mL of methanol (H₂O═0.035-0.038 w %). The mixture was stirred at ambient temperature for 15-20 minutes. The aliquot was then removed from the reactor and filtered through a plug comprising a lower 0.5 cm layer of diatomaceous earth and an upper 1.0 cm layer of silica gel. The filter cake was washed with 7×100mL MTBE. The volume of the colorless and clear filtrate was concentrated under reduced pressure in a 45° C. water bath at a pressure of 40 mbar to obtain the crude product as a colorless liquid. The crude material was vacuum distilled (0.2-1 mbar) using a short path distillation apparatus and 166 g (25% overall yield) of methyl (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate was collected at a head temperature of 95-97° C. and pressure of 0.4 mbar.

Example 7 Reduction of Methyl (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate to (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-ol using Sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy) Aluminumhydride

In an oven dried, nitrogen-flushed flask sealed with a rubber septum and containing a magnetic stir bar was added 240 g (0.831 mol AlH₂’, 1.2 eq.) of a 70% solution of sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy)aluminumhydride (CAS #22722-98-1) in toluene. The flask is then submerged in an ice bath and stirred via an external magnetic stirrer and 166 g (0.691 mol) of methyl (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate, prepared through the process detailed in Example 6, was slowly added. The resulting mixture is stirred at ice-bath temperature for one hour and then brought to ambient temperature and stirred for an additional hour. The reaction mixture was then quenched with 10 mL deionized water and acidified with 15 w/w % aqueous sulfuric acid until the pH of the aqueous layer was 4. The obtained slurry was filtered through diatomaceous earth and the filter cake was rinsed with 2x150 mL of toluene. The two phases of the mother liquor were separated. The aqueous layer was washed with additional 300 mL of toluene. The combined organic phases were washed with 1500 mL deionized water. All volatile components were removed by in vacuo and the product dried via azeotropic distillation with additional toluene to yield 144 g (0.678 mol, 98% yield).

Example 8 Synthesis of (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-yl acetate through Esterification of (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-ol to with Acetic Anhydride

In an oven dried, nitrogen-flushed flask sealed with a rubber septum and containing a magnetic stir bar was added 144 g (0.678 mol) of (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-ol, prepared through the method detailed in Example 7, 75.9 g of acetic anhydride (0.743 mol) and 5.50 g of sodium acetate (0.067 mol, 0.1 eq.). The reaction mixture was then heated to 60° C. for one hour, cooled and then washed consecutively with water and a sodium carbonate solution, yielding 160 g (0.629 mol, 92% yield) of (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-yl acetate as a colorless liquid.

Example 9 Acetylation of 7-octen-1-ol with Acetic Anhydride

7-octen-1-ol (46.49 g, 363 mmol), first purified via vacuum distillation (72° C./8 mbar), was charged into a three-necked, round-bottomed flask equipped with a thermometer, a reflux condenser and a magnetic stirrer bar. The top of the condenser was connected to a Schlenk line and the whole apparatus was flushed with nitrogen. Acetic anhydride (44.29 g, 434 mmol) and anhydrous sodium acetate (3.25 g, 39.7 mmol) were added to the flask. The mixture was stirred at 68° C. for 4 hours. GC showed complete conversion. 200 mL of DCM was added to the reaction mixture and mixed with water (100 mL). NaHCO₃ (25g) was carefully and portion-wise added to adjust the pH of the aqueous phase to 6. The organic phase was separated and extracted with saturated solution of NaHCO₃ (pH˜8-9) then with 100 mL of water (pH˜7). The separated DCM fraction was dried over Na₂SO₄ (60 g) and Na₂CO₃ (6 g) for one night. Organic phase was collected filtered, solid was washed with DCM and hexane. Volatiles were removed on rotary evaporator and the crude product further dried at 60° C./10 mbar for 4 hours. The material was then vacuum distilled a (79-80° C./10mbar) to yield 51.53 g (83% yield) of a colorless liquid was obtained.

Example 10 Cross-Metathesis of oct-7-en-1-yl acetate with hex-1-ene

In a nitrogen-filled glovebox, a 20 mL scintillation vial was charged with a magnetic stir bar, 1.315 g of oct-7-en-1-yl acetate (CAS #5048-35-1) and finally 0.685 g of hex-1-ene (1.05 equivalents). The vial was then closed with a perforated septum. The feedstock was treated with 69 μL of a 25 wt % solution of triethylaluminum in toluene (14.4 mg AlEt₃, 0.720 wt %, 0.803 mol %) and the mixture stirred via an external magnetic stirrer at room temperature for four hours. To the mixture was then added 0.002 mol % (0.35 mg, 0.0177 wt %) of tungsten [(1R)-3,3′-dibromo-2′-[[(1,1-dimethylethyl)dimethylsilyl]oxy]-5,5′, 6,6′,7,7′,8,8′-octahydro[1,1′-binaphthalen]-2-olato-κO][2,6-dichlorobenzenaminato(2-)-κN](2, 5-dimethyl-1H-pyrrol-1-yl)[(2-methoxyphenyl)methylene]-, (T-4)-(CAS #1817807-15-0) as a solution in benzene. At the time after the additional of catalyst specified in the table below, an aliquot of the reaction mixture was removed from the glovebox and analyzed by GC-MS/FID. The results of the GC-MS/FID analysis of these samples is presented in the table below:

Time Approximate Conversion of Approximate After Catalyst Oct-7-en-1-yl Acetate to (Z)-Dodec-7-en-1-yl Addition (h) Dodec-7-en-1-yl Acetate (%) Acetate Content (%) 1 34 97 4 37 97 6 38 97 24 38 97

Example 11 Cross-Metathesis of oct-7-en-1-yl acetate with hex-1-ene

Prior to conducting the procedure below, the oct-7-en-1-yl acetate was further purified through a second vacuum distillation to remove additional catalyst deactivating impurities. In a nitrogen-filled glovebox, a 20 mL scintillation vial was charged with a magnetic stir bar, 1.338 g of oct-7-en-1-yl acetate (CAS #5048-35-1) and finally 0.662 g of hex-1-ene. The vial was then closed with a perforated septum. The feedstock was treated with 7.4 μL of a 25 wt % solution of triethylaluminum in toluene (1.54 mg AlEt₃, 0.0769 wt %, 0.0857 mol %) and the mixture stirred via an external magnetic stirrer at room temperature for four hours. To the mixture was then added 0.002 mol % (0.35 mg, 0.0177 wt %) of tungsten [(1R)-3,3′-dibromo-2′-[[(1,1-dimethylethyl)dimethylsilyl]oxy]-5,5′,6,6′,7,7′, 8, 8′-octahydro[1,1′-binaphthalen]-2-olato-κO][2,6-dichlorobenzenaminato(2-)-κN](2,5-dimethyl-1H-pyrrol-1-yl)[(2-methoxyphenyl)methylene]-, (T-4)-(CAS #1817807-15-0) was added as a solution in benzene. At the time after the additional of catalyst specified in the table below, an aliquot of the reaction mixture was removed from the glovebox and analyzed by GC-MS/FID. The results of the GC-MS/FID analysis of these samples is presented in the table below:

Time Approximate Conversion of Approximate After Catalyst Oct-7-en-1-yl Acetate to (Z)-Dodec-7-en-1-yl Addition (h) Dodec-7-en-1-yl Acetate (%) Acetate Content (%) 1 47 97 2 62 97 4 72 96 8 80 96 72 83 96

Example 12 Reduction of Methyl dec-9-enoate to dec-9-en-1-ol using sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy) Aluminumhydride

In an oven dried, nitrogen-flushed flask sealed with a rubber septum and containing a magnetic stir bar was added 96.0 mL (353 mmol AlH₂’, 1.3 eq.) of a 70% solution of sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy)aluminumhydride (CAS #22722-98-1) in toluene. The flask is then submerged in an ice bath and stirred via an external magnetic stirrer and 50 g (271 mmol) of methyl dec-9-enoate was slowly added so as to maintain the temperature of the reaction mixture below 15° C. The resulting mixture is stirred at ice-bath temperature for one hour and then brought to ambient temperature and stirred for an additional hour. The reaction mixture was then quenched with 10 mL deionized water and acidified with 15 w/w % aqueous sulfuric acid until the pH of the aqueous layer was 4. The obtained slurry was filtered through diatomaceous earth and the filter cake was rinsed with 2×50 mL of toluene. The two phases of the mother liquor were separated. The aqueous layer was washed with additional 100 mL of toluene. The combined organic phases were washed with 50 mL deionized water. All volatile components were removed by in vacuo and the product dried via azeotropic distillation with additional toluene to yield 42.9 g of a colorless oil. This oil was later determined to contain 96.0 wt % of dec-9-en-ol (97.1% yield) by GC-MS/FID analysis.

Example 13 Acetylation of 9-decen-1-ol

9-Decen-1-ol (50.0 g, 320 mmol), prepared through the method of Example 13, was charged into a three-necked, round-bottomed flask equipped with a thermometer, a reflux condenser and a magnetic stirrer bar. The top of the condenser was connected to a Schlenk line and the whole apparatus was flushed with nitrogen. Acetic anhydride (33 mL, 352 mmol, 1.1 eq.) and anhydrous sodium acetate 2.6 g, 32 mmol) were added to the flask. The mixture was stirred at 68° C. for 4 hours. GC showed complete conversion. 100 mL of DCM was added to the reaction mixture and mixed with water (100 mL). NaHCO₃ (25 g) was carefully and portion-wise added to adjust the pH of the aqueous phase to 6. The organic phase was separated and extracted with saturated solution of NaHCO₃ (pH˜8-9) then with 100 mL of water (pH˜7). The separated DCM fraction was dried over Na₂SO₄ (60 g) and Na₂CO₃ (6 g) for one night. Organic phase was collected filtered, solid was washed with DCM and hexane. All volatile components were removed on rotary evaporator to yield 63.6 g of a colorless oil. This oil was later determined to contain 95.8 wt % of dec-9-en-ol (95.6% yield).

Example 14 Cross-Metathesis of dec-9-en-1-yl acetate with hex-1-ene

In a nitrogen-filled glovebox, a 20 mL scintillation vial was charged with a magnetic stir bar, 1.404 g of dec-9-en-1-yl acetate prepared through the method of Example 14 and finally 0.596 g of hex-1-ene. The vial was then closed with a perforated septum. The feedstock was treated with 42.7 μL of a 25 wt % solution of triethylaluminum in toluene (0.9 mg AlEt₃, 0.444 wt %, 0.541 mol %) and the mixture stirred via an external magnetic stirrer at room temperature for four hours. To the mixture was then added 0.002 mol % (0.32 mg, 0.0159 wt %) of tungsten [(1R)-3,3′-dibromo-2′-[[(1,1-dimethylethyl)dimethylsilyl]oxy]-5,5′, 6,6′,7,7′,8,8′-octahydro[1,1′-binaphthalen]-2-olato-κO][2,6-dichlorobenzenaminato(2-)κN](2, 5-dimethyl-1H-pyrrol-1-yl)[(2-methoxyphenyl)methylene]-, (T-4)-(CAS #1817807-15-0) as a solution in benzene. At the time after the additional of catalyst specified in the table below, an aliquot of the reaction mixture was removed from the glovebox and analyzed by GC-MS/FID. The GC-MS/FID data indicated that 23.9% of the starting dec-9-en-1-yl acetate was converted to tetradec-9-en-1-yl acetate and in an E/Z ratio of 3/97.

Example 15 Effect of Metathesis Catalyst Loading on the Z-Selective Cross-Metathesis of Methyl dec-9-enoate and hex-1-ene

In a nitrogen-filled glovebox, five 30 mL scintillation vial wer charged with a magnetic stir bar, 2.70 g of an equimolar mixture of methyl dec-9-enoate and hex-1-ene. The vial was then closed with a perforated septum. The feedstock was treated with 11 μL of a 25 wt % solution of triethylaluminum in toluene (2.3 mg AlEt₃, 0.085 wt %, 0.1 mol %) and the mixture stirred via an external magnetic stirrer at room temperature for 18 hours. To the mixture was added the amount of tungsten [(1R)-3,3′-dibromo-2′-[[(1,1-dimethylethyl) dimethylsilyl]oxy]-5,5′,6,6′,7,7′,8,8′-octahydro[1,1′-binaphthalen]-2-olato-κO][2,6-dichlorobenzenaminato(2-)-κN](2,5-dimethyl-1H-pyrrol-1-yl)[(2-methoxyphenyl)methylene]-, (T-4)-(CAS #1817807-15-0) listed in the table below as a solution in benzene. At the time after the addition of catalyst specified in the table below, an aliquot of the reaction mixture was removed from the glovebox and analyzed by GC-MS/FID to determine ‘9-DAME Conversion (%)’ and ‘Methyl (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate Selectivity (%)’ as described in Example 5.

Methyl (Z)- Tetradec-9- Catalyst Loading Time Methyl Dec-9-enoate enoate Selectivity (mol %) (h) Conversion (%) (%) 0.0005 1 31 99 4 58 98 8 59 97 0.001 1 38 98 4 76 97 8 76 96 0.0015 1 54 98 4 72 95 8 75 94 0.002 1 66 98 4 82 93 8 84 90 0.0025 1 72 97 4 84 91 8 88 88

Example 16 Cross-Metathesis of oct-7-en-1-yl acetate with oct-1-ene

Using the method of Example 1, an equimolar amount of oct-7-en-1-yl acetate and oct-1-ene are charged into a 20 mL glass scintillation vial equipped with a magnetic stir bar inside of a nitrogen-filled glovebox. The mixture is then stirred by means of an external hotplate stirrer and is then treated with an alkyl aluminum reagent to reduce levels of moisture, peroxide and protic impurities as described in U.S. Pat. No. 9,388,097. After sufficient time to ensure the removal of catalyst deactivating impurities to the desired level, the temperature of the substrate mixture is raised to the desired level and a sufficient quantity of a Z-selective group 6 metathesis catalyst to generate the desired level of ‘Methyl Dec-9-enoate Conversion (%)’, as defined in Example 5, is added to the pretreated substrates. After the required amount of time, the vial is removed from the glovebox and the reaction mixture is analyzed by GC-MS. The GC-MS data indicates that (Z)-tetradec-7-en-1-yl acetate is formed in high yield.

Example 17 Cross-Metathesis of oct-7-en-1-yl acetate with but-1-ene

Using the method of Example 1, an equimolar amount of oct-7-en-1-yl acetate and but-1-ene are charged into a glass pressure vessel equipped with a magnetic stir bar. The mixture is then stirred by means of an external hotplate stirrer and treated with an alkyl aluminum reagent to reduce levels of moisture, peroxide and protic impurities as described in U.S. Pat. No. 9,388,097. After sufficient time to ensure the removal of catalyst deactivating impurities to the desired level, the temperature of the substrate mixture is raised to the appropriate temperature and a sufficient quantity of a Z-selective group 6 metathesis catalyst to generate the desired level of ‘Methyl Dec-9-enoate Conversion (%)’, as defined in Example 5, is added to the pretreated substrates. After the required amount of time, the vial is removed from the glovebox and the reaction mixture is analyzed by GC-MS. The GC-MS data indicates that (Z)-dec-7-en-1-yl acetate is formed in high yield.

Example 18 Cross-Metathesis of dec-9-en-1-yl acetate with oct-1-ene

Using the method of Example 1, an equimolar amount of dec-9-en-1-yl acetate and oct-1-ene are charged into a 20 mL glass scintillation vial equipped with a magnetic stir bar inside of a nitrogen-filled glovebox. The mixture is then stirred by means of an external hotplate stirrer and is then treated with an alkyl aluminum reagent to reduce levels of moisture, peroxide and protic impurities as described in U.S. Pat. No. 9,388,097. After sufficient time to ensure the removal of catalyst deactivating impurities to the desired level, the temperature of the substrate mixture is raised to the desired level and a sufficient quantity of a Z-selective group 6 metathesis catalyst to generate the desired level of ‘Methyl Dec-9-enoate Conversion (%)’, as defined in Example 5, is added to the pretreated substrates. After the required amount of time, the vial is removed from the glovebox and the reaction mixture is analyzed by GC-MS. The GC-MS data indicates that (Z)-hexadec-9-en-1-yl acetate is formed in high yield.

Example 19 Cross-Metathesis of dec-9-en-1-yl acetate with but-1-ene

Using the method of Example 1, an equimolar amount of dec-9-en-1-yl acetate and but-1-ene are charged into a glass pressure vessel equipped with a magnetic stir bar. The mixture is then stirred by means of an external hotplate stirrer and treated with an alkyl aluminum reagent to reduce levels of moisture, peroxide and protic impurities as described in U.S. Pat. No. 9,388,097. After sufficient time to ensure the removal of catalyst deactivating impurities to the desired level, the temperature of the substrate mixture is raised to the desired level and a sufficient quantity of a Z-selective group 6 metathesis catalyst to generate the desired level of ‘Methyl Dec-9-enoate Conversion (%)’, as defined in Example 5, is added to the pretreated substrates. After the required amount of time, the vial is removed from the glovebox and the reaction mixture is analyzed by GC-MS. The GC-MS data indicates that (Z)-dodec-9-en-1-yl acetate is formed in high yield.

V. EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS

Exemplary embodiments provided in accordance with the presently disclosed subject matter include, but are not limited to, the claims and the following embodiments:

1. A method for synthesizing a fatty olefin derivative, the method comprising:

a) contacting an olefin according to Formula I

with a metathesis reaction partner according to Formula IIb

in the presence of a metathesis catalyst under conditions sufficient to form a metathesis product according to Formula IIIb:

and

b) converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative;

wherein:

each R¹ is independently selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₁₈ alkyl, and C₂₋₁₈ alkenyl;

R^(2b) is C₁₋₈ alkyl;

subscript y is an integer ranging from 0 to 17; and

subscript z is an integer ranging from 0 to 17.

2. The method of embodiment 1, wherein converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative comprises reducing the metathesis product to form an alkenol according to Formula Vb:

3. The method of embodiment 2, wherein the alkenol is the fatty olefin derivative.

4. The method of embodiment 2, wherein converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative further comprises acylating the alkenol, thereby forming a fatty olefin derivative according to Formula VIb:

wherein R^(2C) is C₁₋₆ acyl.

5. The method of any one of embodiments 1-3, wherein R¹ is H, R^(2b) is methyl, subscript y is 7, and subscript z is 3.

6. The method of embodiment 4, wherein R¹ is H, R^(2b) is methyl, subscript y is 7, subscript z is 3, and R^(2C) is acetyl.

7. The method of embodiment 2, wherein converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative further comprises oxidizing the alkenol, thereby forming a fatty olefin derivative according to Formula VIIb:

8. The method of embodiment 1, wherein converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative further comprises reducing the metathesis product, thereby forming a fatty olefin derivative according to Formula VIIb:

9. The method of embodiment 7 or embodiment 8, wherein R¹ is H, R^(2b) is methyl, subscript y is 7, and subscript z is 3.

10. The method of any one of embodiments 1-9, wherein the olefin has a structure according to Formula Ia:

11. The method of embodiment 10, wherein subscript z is 3.

12. The method of any one of embodiments 1-11, wherein the metathesis product comprises a Z olefin.

13. The method of embodiment 12, wherein at least about 80% of the olefin is a Z olefin.

14. The method of embodiment 12, wherein at least about 90% of the olefin is a Z olefin.

15. The method of any one of embodiments 12-14, wherein the metathesis catalyst is a Z-selective molybdenum catalyst or a Z-selective tungsten catalyst.

16. The method of embodiment 15, wherein the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 2:

wherein:

M is Mo or W;

R^(3a) is selected from the group consisting of aryl, heteroaryl, alkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, and heterocycloalkyl, each of which is optionally substituted;

R^(4a) and R^(5a) are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted heteroalkyl, optionally substituted heteroalkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, and optionally substituted heteroaryl;

R^(7a) is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkoxy, heteroalkyl, aryl, aryloxy, heteroaryl, silylalkyl, and silyloxy, each of which is optionally substituted; and

R^(6a) is R^(8a) —X—, wherein

X is O or S and R^(8a) is optionally substituted aryl; or

X is O and R^(8a) is SiR^(9a)R^(10a)R^(11a) or CR^(12a)R^(13a)R^(14a), wherein R^(9a), R^(10a), R^(11a), R^(12a), R^(13a), and R^(14a) are independently selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted alkyl and optionally substituted phenyl; or

R^(6a) and R^(7a) are linked together and are bonded to M via oxygen.

17. The method of embodiment 16, wherein:

R^(7a) is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkoxy, heteroalkyl, aryl, aryloxy, and heteroaryl, each of which is optionally substituted; and

X is O or S and R^(8a) is optionally substituted aryl; or

X is O and R^(8a) is CR^(12a)R^(13a)R^(14a).

18. The method of embodiment 16, wherein

R^(3a) is selected from the group consisting of 2,6-dimethylphenyl; 2,6-diisopropylphenyl; 2,6-dichlorophenyl; and adamant-1-yl;

R^(4a) is selected from the group consisting of —C(CH₃)₂C₆H₅ and —C(CH₃)₃;

R^(5a) is H;

R^(7a) is selected from the group consisting of pyrrol-1-yl; 2,5-dimethyl-pyrrol-1-yl; triphenylsilyloxy; triisopropylsilyloxy; 2-phenyl-1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-prop-2-yloxy; 2-methyl-1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-prop-2-yloxy; 9-phenyl-fluorene-9-yloxy; 2,6-diphenyl-phenoxy; and t-butyloxy; and

R^(6a) is R^(8a) —X—, wherein

X═O and

R^(8a) is phenyl which bears two substituents in the ortho positions with respect to O, or which bears at least three substituents, from which two substituents are in the ortho positions with respect to O and one substituent is in the para position with respect to O; or

R^(8a) is selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted 8-(naphthalene-1-yl)-naphthalene-1-yl; optionally substituted 8-phenlynaphthalene-1-yl; optionally substituted quinoline-8-yl; triphenylsilyl; triisopropylsilyl; triphenylmethyl; tri(4-methylphenyl)methyl; 9-phenyl-fluorene-9-yl; 2-phenyl-1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-prop-2-yl; 2-methyl-1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-prop-2-yl; and t-butyl.

19. The method of embodiment 18, wherein:

R^(7a) is selected from the group consisting of pyrrol-1-yl; 2,5-dimethyl-pyrrol-1-yl; and

R^(8a) is phenyl which bears two substituents in the ortho positions with respect to O, or which bears at least three substituents, from which two substituents are in the ortho positions with respect to O and one substituent is in the para position with respect to O; or

R^(8a) is selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted 8-(naphthalene-1-yl)-naphthalene-1-yl and optionally substituted 8-phenlynaphthalene-1-yl.

20. The method of embodiment 16, wherein the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 2a:

wherein:

R^(3a) is aryl, heteroaryl, alkyl, or cycloalkyl, each of which is optionally substituted;

R^(7a) is pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, indolyl, pyrazolyl, azaindolyl, or indazolyl, each of which is optionally substituted;

R^(8a) is optionally substituted aryl;

R^(5a) is a hydrogen atom, alkyl, or alkoxy;

R^(4b) is a hydrogen atom, —O—(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —CH₂—O—(C₁₋₆ alkyl), heteroalkoxy, or —N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂; and

R^(4c) and R^(4d) are independently a hydrogen atom, C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ alkoxy, a halogen atom, —NO₂, an amide, or a sulfonamide.

21. The method of embodiment 20, wherein:

R^(7a) is pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, azaindolyl, or indazolyl, each of which is optionally substituted; and

R^(5a) is a hydrogen atom.

22. The method of embodiment 20, wherein R^(3a) is phenyl, 2,6-dichlorophenyl, 2,6-dimethylphenyl, 2,6-diisopropylphenyl, 2-trifluoromethylphenyl, pentafluorophenyl, tert-butyl, or 1-adamantyl.

23. The method of embodiment 20 or embodiment 22, wherein R^(8a) is

24. The method of any one of embodiments 20-23, wherein R^(4b) is methoxy, R^(4c) is hydrogen, and R^(4d) is hydrogen.

25. The method of embodiment 15, wherein the metathesis catalyst is selected from the group consisting of

26. The method of embodiment 25, wherein the metathesis catalyst is

27. The method of embodiment 25, wherein the metathesis catalyst is

28. The method of any one of embodiments 15-27, wherein the catalyst is present in an amount less than 0.01 mol % with respect to the olefin or to the metathesis reaction partner.

29. The method of any one of embodiments 1-10, wherein the metathesis product comprises an E olefin.

30. The method of embodiment 29, wherein greater than about 85% of the olefin is an E olefin.

31. The method of embodiment 29, wherein at least about 90% of the olefin is an E olefin.

32. The method of any one of embodiments 29-31, wherein the metathesis catalyst is an E-selective ruthenium catalyst.

33. The method of any one of embodiments 1-32, wherein the molar ratio of the olefin to the metathesis reaction partner ranges from about 1:1 to about 5:1.

34. The method of any one of embodiments 33, wherein the molar ratio of the olefin to the metathesis reaction partner ranges from about 2:1 to about 3:1

35. The method of any one of embodiments 1-34, wherein the metathesis reaction partner is derived from a natural oil.

36. The method of embodiment 35, wherein the natural oil is selected from the group consisting of canola oil, rapeseed oil, coconut oil, corn oil, cottonseed oil, olive oil, palm oil, peanut oil, safflower oil, sesame oil, soybean oil, sunflower oil, linseed oil, palm kernel oil, tung oil, jatropha oil, jojoba oil, mustard oil, pennycress oil, camelina oil, castor oil, and combinations thereof.

37. The method of embodiment 35 or 36, wherein the metathesis reaction partner comprises one or more catalyst-poisoning contaminants.

38. The method of embodiment 37, further comprising treating the metathesis reaction partner with a metal alkyl compound under conditions sufficient to reduce the concentration of at least one of the catalyst-poisoning contaminants, wherein the treating is conducted prior to contacting the olefin with the metathesis reaction partner.

39. The method of embodiment 1, wherein

the olefin according to Formula I is a linear C₃-C₁₂ alpha olefin,

the metathesis reaction partner according to Formula IIb is a Δ⁹-unsaturated fatty acid alkyl ester,

the metathesis catalyst is a Z-selective metathesis catalyst, and

the metathesis product according to Formula IIIb is a C₁₁-C₂₀ (Z)-9-unsaturated fatty acid alkyl ester.

40. The method of embodiment 39, wherein converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative comprises contacting the C₁₁-C₂₀ (Z)-9-unsaturated fatty acid alkyl ester with a reducing agent under conditions sufficient to form a C₁₁-C₂₀ (Z)-9-fatty alcohol.

41. The method of embodiment 40, wherein the reducing agent is sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy)aluminum hydride.

42. The method of embodiment 40, wherein converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative further comprises contacting the C₁₁-C₂₀ (Z)-9-fatty alcohol with an acylating agent in the presence of a base under conditions sufficient to form an acetate ester of the C₁₁-C₂₀ (Z)-9-fatty alcohol.

43. The method of embodiment 42, wherein the acylating agent is acetic anhydride.

44. The method of embodiment 40, wherein converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative further comprises oxidizing the C₁₁-C₂₀ (Z)-9-fatty alcohol to form a C₁₁-C₂₀ (Z)-9-alkenal.

45. The method of embodiment 39, wherein converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative comprises contacting the C₁₁-C₂₀ (Z)-9-fatty acid alkyl ester with a reducing agent under conditions sufficient to form a C₁₁-Cm₂₀ (Z)-9-alkenal.

46. The method of embodiment 45, wherein the reducing agent is amine-modified sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy)aluminumhydride.

47. The method of embodiment 1, wherein:

the fatty acid derivative is (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-yl acetate;

the olefin according to Formula I is hex-1-ene,

the metathesis reaction partner according to Formula IIb is a Δ⁹-unsaturated fatty acid alkyl ester,

the metathesis catalyst is a Z-selective metathesis catalyst, and

the metathesis product according to Formula IIIb is an alkyl ester of (Z)-9-tetradec-9-enoate; and

wherein converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative comprises:

contacting the alkyl ester of (Z)-9-tetradec-9-enoate with a reducing agent under conditions sufficient to form (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-ol, and

acylating the (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-ol to form the (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-yl acetate.

48. The method of embodiment 47, wherein the metathesis reaction partner according to Formula IIb is methyl 9-decenoate and the metathesis product is methyl (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate.

49. The method of embodiment 47, wherein the reducing agent is sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy)aluminumhydride.

50. The method of embodiment 47, wherein acylating the (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-ol comprises contacting the (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-ol with an acylating agent in the presence of a base under conditions sufficient to form (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-yl acetate.

51. The method of embodiment 50, wherein the acylating agent is acetic anhydride.

52. The method of any one of embodiments 47-51, wherein the metathesis reaction partner according to Formula IIb is methyl 9-decenoate and the metathesis product is methyl (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate.

53. The method of embodiment 1, wherein:

the fatty acid derivative is (Z)-tetradec-9-enal,

the olefin according to Formula I is hex-1-ene,

the metathesis reaction partner according to Formula IIb is a Δ⁹-unsaturated fatty acid alkyl ester,

the metathesis catalyst is a Z-selective metathesis catalyst, and

the metathesis product according to Formula IIIb is an alkyl ester of (Z)-9-tetradec-9-enoate; and

wherein converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative comprises contacting the alkyl ester of (Z)-9-tetradec-9-enoate with a reducing agent under conditions sufficient to form the (Z)-tetradec-9-enal.

54. The method of embodiment 53, wherein the reducing agent is amine-modified sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy) aluminumhydride.

55. The method of embodiment 53 or embodiment 54, wherein the Δ⁹-unsaturated fatty acid alkyl ester according to Formula IIg is methyl 9-decenoate and the metathesis product is methyl (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate.

56. The method of embodiment 1, wherein:

the fatty acid derivative is (Z)-tetradec-9-enal,

the olefin according to Formula I is hex-1-ene,

the metathesis reaction partner according to Formula IIb is a Δ⁹-unsaturated fatty acid alkyl ester,

the metathesis catalyst is a Z-selective metathesis catalyst, and

the metathesis product according to Formula IIIb is an alkyl ester of (Z)-9-tetradec-9-enoate; and

wherein converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative comprises

contacting the alkyl ester of (Z)-9-tetradec-9-enoate with a reducing agent under conditions sufficient to form (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-ol, and

oxidizing the (Z)-tetradec-9-en-1-ol to form the (Z)-tetradec-9-enal.

57. The method of embodiment 56, wherein the reducing agent is sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy)aluminumhydride.

58. The method of embodiment 56 or embodiment 57, wherein the Δ⁹-unsaturated fatty acid alkyl ester according to Formula IIg is methyl 9-decenoate and the metathesis product is methyl (Z)-tetradec-9-enoate.

59. The method of any one of embodiments 39-58, wherein the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 2a:

wherein:

M is Mo or W;

R^(3a) is aryl, heteroaryl, alkyl, or cycloalkyl, each of which is optionally substituted;

R^(7a) is pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, indolyl, pyrazolyl, azaindolyl, or indazolyl, each of which is optionally substituted;

R^(8a) is optionally substituted aryl;

R^(5a) is a hydrogen atom, alkyl, or alkoxy;

R^(4b) is a hydrogen atom, —O—(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —CH₂—O—(C₁₋₆ alkyl), heteroalkoxy, or —N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)2; and

R^(4c) and R^(4d) are independently a hydrogen atom, C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ alkoxy, a halogen atom, —NO₂, an amide, or a sulfonamide.

60. The method of embodiment 59, wherein the metathesis catalyst is selected from the group consisting of:

61. A fatty olefin derivative synthesized according to the method of any one of embodiments 1-60.

62. The fatty olefin derivative of embodiment 61, which is an insect pheromone.

63. A method for synthesizing a fatty olefin derivative according to Formula VIb:

the method comprising:

i) reducing an alkyl ester according to Formula IIb

to form an alkenol according to Formula VIII

ii) acylating the alkenol to form an acylated alkenol according to Formula IX

and

iii) contacting the acylated alkenol with an olefin according to Formula I

in the presence of a metathesis catalyst under conditions sufficient to form the fatty olefin derivative; wherein:

R¹ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₁₈ alkyl, and C₂₋₁₈ alkenyl;

R^(2b) is C₁₋₈ alkyl,

R^(2c) is C₁₋₆ acyl,

subscript y is an integer ranging from 0 to 17;

subscript z is an integer ranging from 0 to 17; and

the metathesis catalyst is a tungsten catalyst or a molybdenum catalyst.

64. The method of embodiment 63, wherein R¹ is H, R^(2b) is methyl, R^(2c) is acetyl, subscript y is 7, and subscript z is 3.

65. The method of embodiment 63 or embodiment 64, wherein the metathesis product comprises an E olefin.

66. The method of embodiment 63 or embodiment 64, wherein the metathesis product comprises a Z olefin.

67. The method of embodiment 66, wherein the metathesis catalyst is a Z-selective molybdenum catalyst or a Z-selective tungsten catalyst.

68. The method of embodiment 67, wherein the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 2:

wherein:

M is Mo or W;

R^(3a) is selected from the group consisting of aryl, heteroaryl, alkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, and heterocycloalkyl, each of which is optionally substituted;

R^(4a) and R^(5a) are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted heteroalkyl, optionally substituted heteroalkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, and optionally substituted heteroaryl;

R^(7a) is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkoxy, heteroalkyl, aryl, aryloxy, heteroaryl, silylalkyl, and silyloxy, each of which is optionally substituted; and

R^(6a) is R^(8a)—X—, wherein

X is O or S and R^(8a) is optionally substituted aryl; or

X is O and R^(8a) is SiR^(9a)R^(10a)R^(11a) or CR^(12a)R^(13a)R^(14a), wherein R^(9a), R^(10a), R^(11a), R^(12a), R^(13a), and R^(14a) are independently selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted alkyl and optionally substituted phenyl; or

R^(6a) and R^(7a) are linked together and are bonded to M via oxygen.

69. The method of embodiment 68, wherein the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 2a:

wherein:

R^(3a) is aryl, heteroaryl, alkyl, or cycloalkyl, each of which is optionally substituted;

R^(7a) is pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, indolyl, pyrazolyl, azaindolyl, or indazolyl, each of which is optionally substituted;

R^(8a) is optionally substituted aryl;

R^(5a) is a hydrogen atom, alkyl, or alkoxy;

R^(4b) is a hydrogen atom, —O—(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —CH₂—O—(C₁₋₆ alkyl), heteroalkoxy, or —N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂; and

R^(4c) and R^(4d) are independently a hydrogen atom, C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ alkoxy, a halogen atom, —NO₂, an amide, or a sulfonamide.

70. The method of embodiment 68 or embodiment 69, wherein the metathesis catalyst is selected from the group consisting of:

Although the foregoing has been described in some detail by way of illustration and example for purposes of clarity and understanding, one of skill in the art will appreciate that certain changes and modifications can be practiced within the scope of the appended claims. All publications, patents, patent applications, and sequence accession numbers cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes. 

1-28. (canceled)
 29. A method for synthesizing a fatty olefin derivative according to Formula VIb:

the method comprising: i) reducing an alkyl ester according to Formula IIb

to form an alkenol according to Formula VIII

ii) acylating the alkenol to form an acylated alkenol according to Formula IX

and iii) contacting the acylated alkenol with an olefin according to Formula I

in the presence of a metathesis catalyst under conditions sufficient to form the fatty olefin derivative; wherein: R¹ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₁₈ alkyl, and C₂₋₁₈ alkenyl; R^(2b) is C₁₋₈ alkyl, R^(2c) is C₁₋₆ acyl, subscript y is an integer ranging from 0 to 17; subscript z is an integer ranging from 0 to 17; and the metathesis catalyst is a tungsten catalyst, a molybdenum catalyst, or a ruthenium catalyst.
 30. The method of claim 29, wherein subscript y is
 7. 31. The method of claim 29, wherein R¹ is H, R^(2b) is methyl, R^(2c) is acetyl, subscript y is 7, and subscript z is
 3. 32. The method of claim 29, wherein the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 2:

wherein: M is Mo or W; R^(3a) is selected from the group consisting of aryl, heteroaryl, alkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, and heterocycloalkyl, each of which is optionally substituted; R^(4a) and R^(5a) are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted heteroalkyl, optionally substituted heteroalkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, and optionally substituted heteroaryl; R^(7a) is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkoxy, heteroalkyl, aryl, aryloxy, heteroaryl, silylalkyl, and silyloxy, each of which is optionally substituted; and R^(6a) is R^(8a)—X—, wherein X is O or S and R^(8a) is optionally substituted aryl; or X is O and R^(8a) is SiR^(9a)R^(10a)R^(11a) or CR^(12a)R^(13a)R^(14a), wherein R^(9a), R^(10a), R^(11a), R^(12a), R^(13a), and R^(14a) are independently selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted alkyl and optionally substituted phenyl; or R^(6a) and R^(7a) are linked together and are bonded to M via oxygen.
 33. The method of claim 32, wherein the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 2a:

R^(3a) is aryl, heteroaryl, alkyl, or cycloalkyl, each of which is optionally substituted; R^(7a) is pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, indolyl, pyrazolyl, azaindolyl, or indazolyl, each of which is optionally substituted; R^(8a) is optionally substituted aryl; R^(5a) is a hydrogen atom, alkyl, or alkoxy; R^(4b) is a hydrogen atom, —O—(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —CH₂—O—(C₁₋₆ alkyl), heteroalkoxy, or —N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂; R^(4c) and R^(4d) are independently a hydrogen atom, C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ alkoxy, a halogen atom, —NO₂, an amide, or a sulfonamide.
 34. The method of claim 29, wherein the metathesis catalyst is of the formula LL′AA′M═CR_(b)R_(c) or LL′AA′M═(C═)_(n)CR_(b)R_(c), wherein M is ruthenium; L and L′ are each independently any neutral electron donor ligand and preferably selected from phosphine, sulfonated phosphine, phosphite, phosphinite, phosphonite, arsine, stibnite, ether, amine, amide, imine, sulfoxide, carboxyl, nitrosyl, pyridine, thioether, or heterocyclic carbenes; and A and A′ are anionic ligands independently selected from halogen, hydrogen, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, aryl, C₁-C₂₀ alkoxide, aryloxide, C₂-C₂₀ alkoxycarbonyl, arylcarboxylate, C₁-C₂₀ carboxylate, arylsulfonyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkylsulfonyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkylsulfinyl; each ligand optionally being substituted with C₁-C₅ alkyl, halogen, C₁-C₅ alkoxy; or with a phenyl group that is optionally substituted with halogen, C₁-C₅ alkyl, or C₁-C₅ alkoxy; and A and A′ together may optionally comprise a bidentate ligand; and R_(b) and R_(c) are independently selected from hydrogen, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, aryl, C₁-C₂₀ carboxylate, C₁-C₂₀ alkoxy, aryloxy, C₁-C₂₀ alkoxycarbonyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkylthio, C₁-C₂₀ alkylsulfonyl and C₁-C₂₀ alkylsulfinyl, each of R_(b) and R_(c) optionally substituted with C₁-C₅ alkyl, halogen, C₁-C₅ alkoxy or with a phenyl group that is optionally substituted with halogen, C₁ -C₅ alkyl, or C₁-C₅ alkoxy.
 35. The method of claim 29, wherein the metathesis catalyst is selected from the group consisting of:


36. A method for synthesizing a fatty olefin derivative, the method comprising: a) contacting an olefin according to Formula I

with a metathesis reaction partner according to Formula II

in the presence of a metathesis catalyst under conditions sufficient to form a metathesis product; and b) optionally converting the metathesis product to the fatty olefin derivative; wherein: R¹ is selected from H, C₁₋₁₈ alkyl, and C₂₋₁₈ alkenyl; R² is selected from —(CH₂)_(x)OR^(2a) and —(CH₂)_(y)COOR^(2b), wherein R^(2a) is an alcohol protecting group and R^(2b) is C₁₋₈ alkyl; subscript x is an integer ranging from 1 to 18; subscript y is an integer ranging from 0 to 17; and subscript z is an integer ranging from 0 to
 17. 37. The method of claim 36, wherein the metathesis reaction partner is a compound according to Formula IIb:

the metathesis product is a compound according to Formula IIIb:

the fatty olefin derivative is a compound according to Formula Vb:

a compound according to Formula VIb:

or a compound according to according to Formula VIIb:

R^(2b) is C₁₋₈ alkyl; wherein R^(2c) is C₁₋₆ acyl; subscript y is an integer ranging from 0 to 17; and subscript z is an integer ranging from 0 to
 17. 38. The method of claim 37, wherein the olefin is a linear C₃-C₁₂ olefin, the metathesis reaction part is a Δ⁹-unsaturated fatty acid alkyl ester, the metathesis product is a C₁₁-C₂₀ (Z)-9-unsaturated fatty acid alkyl ester, and the fatty olefin derivative is selected from the group consisting of a C₁₁-C₂₀ (Z)-9-fatty alcohol, an acetate ester of a C₁₁-C₂₀ (Z)-9-fatty alcohol, and a C₁₁-C₂₀ (Z)-9-alkenal.
 39. The method of claim 37, wherein the metathesis catalyst is a molybdenum catalyst, a tungsten catalyst, or a ruthenium catalyst.
 40. The method of claim 37, wherein the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 1:

wherein: M is Mo or W; R³ is selected from optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted aliphatic, and optionally substituted heteroaliphatic; each of R⁴ and R⁵ is independently selected from hydrogen, optionally substituted aliphatic, optionally substituted heteroaliphatic, optionally substituted aryl, and optionally substituted heteroaryl; R⁶ is selected from —O-alkyl, —O-heteroalkyl, —O-aryl, —O-heteroaryl, —N(R^(n))-heteroalkyl, —N(R^(n))-aryl, and —N(r^(n))-heteroaryl, wherein each R^(n) is independently selected from hydrogen, an amino protecting group, and optionally substituted alkyl, and wherein R⁶ is optionally substituted; and R⁷ is selected from aryl, heteroaryl, alkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, —O-alkyl, —O-heteroalkyl, —O-aryl, and —O-heteroaryl, each of which is optionally substituted, or R⁷ is halogen.
 41. The method of claim 37, wherein the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 2:

wherein: M is Mo or W; R^(3a) is selected from the group consisting of aryl, heteroaryl, alkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, and heterocycloalkyl, each of which is optionally substituted; R^(4a) and R^(5a) are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted heteroalkyl, optionally substituted heteroalkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, and optionally substituted heteroaryl; R^(7a) is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkoxy, heteroalkyl, aryl, aryloxy, heteroaryl, silylalkyl, and silyloxy, each of which is optionally substituted; and R^(6a) is R^(8a)—X—, wherein X is O or S and R^(8a) is optionally substituted aryl; or X is O and R^(8a) is SiR^(9a)R^(10a)R^(11a) or CR^(12a)R^(13a)R^(14a), wherein R^(9a), R^(10a), R^(11a), R^(12a), R^(13a), and R^(14a) are independently selected from the group consisting of optionally substituted alkyl and optionally substituted phenyl; or R^(6a) and R^(7a) are linked together and are bonded to M via oxygen.
 42. The method of claim 41, wherein: R^(7a) is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkoxy, heteroalkyl, aryl, aryloxy, and heteroaryl, each of which is optionally substituted; and X is O or S and R^(8a) is optionally substituted aryl; or X is O and R^(8a) is CR^(12a)R^(13a)R^(14a).
 43. The method of claim 37, wherein the metathesis catalyst has a structure according to Formula 2a:

R^(3a) is aryl, heteroaryl, alkyl, or cycloalkyl, each of which is optionally substituted; R^(7a) is pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, indolyl, pyrazolyl, azaindolyl, or indazolyl, each of which is optionally substituted; R^(8a) is optionally substituted aryl; R^(5a) is a hydrogen atom, alkyl, or alkoxy; R^(4b) is a hydrogen atom, —O—(C₁-C₆ alkyl), —CH₂—O—(C₁₋₆ alkyl), heteroalkoxy, or —N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂; R^(4c) and R^(4d) are independently a hydrogen atom, C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ alkoxy, a halogen atom, —NO₂, an amide, or a sulfonamide.
 44. The method of claim 37, wherein the metathesis catalyst is of the formula LL′AA′M═CR_(b)R_(c) or LL′AA′M═(C═)_(n)CR_(b)R_(c), wherein M is ruthenium; L and L′ are each independently any neutral electron donor ligand and preferably selected from phosphine, sulfonated phosphine, phosphite, phosphinite, phosphonite, arsine, stibnite, ether, amine, amide, imine, sulfoxide, carboxyl, nitrosyl, pyridine, thioether, or heterocyclic carbenes; and A and A′ are anionic ligands independently selected from halogen, hydrogen, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, aryl, C₁-C₂₀ alkoxide, aryloxide, C₂-C₂₀ alkoxycarbonyl, arylcarboxylate, C₁-C₂₀ carboxylate, arylsulfonyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkylsulfonyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkylsulfinyl; each ligand optionally being substituted with C₁-C₅ alkyl, halogen, C₁-C₅ alkoxy; or with a phenyl group that is optionally substituted with halogen, C₁-C₅ alkyl, or C₁-C₅ alkoxy; and A and A′ together may optionally comprise a bidentate ligand; and R_(b) and R_(c) are independently selected from hydrogen, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, aryl, C₁-C₂₀ carboxylate, C₁-C₂₀ alkoxy, aryloxy, C₁-C₂₀ alkoxycarbonyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkylthio, C₁-C₂₀ alkylsulfonyl and C₁-C₂₀ alkylsulfinyl, each of R_(b) and R_(c) optionally substituted with C₁-C₅ alkyl, halogen, C₁-C₅ alkoxy or with a phenyl group that is optionally substituted with halogen, C₁-C₅ alkyl, or C₁-C₅ alkoxy.
 45. The method of claim 37, wherein the metathesis catalyst is selected from the group consisting of:


46. The method of claim 37, wherein the catalyst is present in an amount less than 0.01 mol % with respect to the olefin or to the metathesis reaction partner.
 47. The method of claim 37, wherein the metathesis reaction partner is derived from a natural oil.
 48. The method of claim 47, wherein the natural oil is selected from the group consisting of canola oil, rapeseed oil, coconut oil, corn oil, cottonseed oil, olive oil, palm oil, peanut oil, safflower oil, sesame oil, soybean oil, sunflower oil, linseed oil, palm kernel oil, tung oil, jatropha oil, jojoba oil, mustard oil, pennycress oil, camelina oil, castor oil, and combinations thereof. 